THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


WONDERS  OF   GEOLOGY. 


B  O  S  T  O  N  : 

B  K  A  1)  B  I'  It  Y  ,    S  O  1)  K  N    A.    COMPANY. 


WONDEKS 


GEOLOGY, 


BY  THE  AUTHOR  OF 


PETER  PARLEY'S   TALES. 


'  Geology  is  the  world's  history  of  itself." 

DANIEL  WEBSTER. 


BOSTON: 
BRADBURY,  SODEN  &  CO. 

M  DCCC  XLV. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 5 

HISTORY  OF  THE  SCIENCE          .        «"    r.  *      ;-v  5 

USES  OF  GEOLOGY 17 

ASTRONOMICAL  View  OF  THE  EARTH       .        .  25 

PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EARTH          if '•*%-•     .  31 

DEFINITIONS  OF  GEOLOGY          .....  34 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  ROCKS     .        .        .      ».'^-    V-':     .  36 

CHANGES  OF  THE  EARTH'S  SURFACE        ...  45 

DESCRIPTIVE  GEOLOGY          ......  46 

STRATIFIED  ROCKS 46 

ALLUVIUM 46 

DILUVIUM  OR  DRIFT 94 

TERTIARY  FORMATION 108 

SECONDARY  ROCKS Ill 

PRIMARY  STRATIFIED  ROCKS          ....  120 

PRIMARY  UNSTRATIFIED  ROCKS         .        .        .  125 

ORGANIC  REMAINS 136 

ORGANIC  REMAINS  OF  THE  SECONDARY  FORMATION  164 


8B110S 


IV  CONTENTS. 

MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES  ON  ORGANIC  REMAINS     .    205 
ROCKS  COMPOSED  WHOLLY  OR  IN  PART  OF  ANIMAL 

REMAINS 215 

MUTATIONS  OF  THE  EARTH'S  SURFACE    .        .        .        218 

AQUEOUS  AGENCIES 220 

VEGETABLE  AGENCY 225 

AGENCY  OF  MAN  AND  OTHER  ANIMALS        .        .    227 
CHEMICAL  AGENCIES         .        .        ,       *    v   .        229 

IGNEOUS  AGENCIES 229 

VOLCANOES 229 

EARTHQUAKES 257 

ELEVATIONS  AND  DEPRESSIONS  WITHOUT  EARTH- 
QUAKES   ....  ... 

CAUSES  OF  VOLCANOES  AND  EARTHQUAKES 
CHANGES  OF  CLIMATES  UPON  THE  GLOBE    . 
GENERAL  VIEW         .        .        .        .  ,      . 

INFERENCES. —  MARKS  OF  DESIGN  IN  THE  GEOLOG- 
ICAL CHANGES  OF  THE  EARTH'S  SURFACE    . 

UNITY  OF  DESIGN 

PROOFS  OF  CREATION     .        .        .        . 
GEOLOGY  IN  REFERENCE  TO  THE  SCRIPTURE  HIS- 
TORY OF  THE  CREATION         .... 


WONDERS  OF  GEOLOGY. 


INTRODUCTION. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  SCIENCE. 

THE  proper  object  and  design  of  modern  Geology 
are  the  investigation  of  the  structure  of  the  earth.  In 
former  times  the  science  took  a  wider  range,  and  in- 
cluded the  natural  history  of  our  globe,  —  embracing 
even  the  entire  circuit  of  the  animal,  mineral,  and  vege- 
table kingdoms. 

From  the  earliest  ages,  the  attention  of  mankind 
has  been  directed  to  the  phenomena  displayed  by 
the  earth's  surface,  and  innumerable  theories  have 
been  suggested  as  well  to  account  for  its  origin  as 
to  point  out  the  process  of  its  formation.  Some  of 

*  We  have  adopted  the  title  of  a  work  which  has  recently 
been  published  by  an  eminent  geologist  of  England,  Dr.  Man- 
tell.  Although  we  have  extracted  largely  from  that  elegant 
and  scientific  author,  we  have  taken  important  passages  and 
suggestions  from  Sedgvvick,  Richardson,  Cuvier,  Lyell,  Hitch- 
cock, and  others.  To  the  last  named  writer,  who  has  fur- 
nished the  best  practical  treatise  on  geology,  we  are  indebted 
for  the  general  plan  of  our  classification. 


b  WONDERS    OF   GEOLOGY. 

these  are  now  known  to  have  contained  glimpses  of 
truth,  but  for  the  most  part  they  are  regarded  as  vain 
speculations,  and  have  passed  into  oblivion  or  con- 
tempt. Yet,  as  the  extravagances  of  human  nature 
may  sometimes  furnish  instruction  as  well  as  amuse- 
ment, we  shall  give  a  few  specimens  of  the  strange 
theories  of  the  earth  which  have  been  broached  by 
men  of  learning  and  ability. 

Passing  over  earlier  writers  on  this  subject,  we 
come  to  John  Kepler,  one  of  the  greatest  astronomers 
and  mathematicians  that  ever  lived.  In  a  work  pub- 
lished in  1619,  he  seriously  attempted  to  prove  by 
argument,  that  the  earth  is  an  immense  animal, 
and  breathes  forth  winds  through  the  craters  or  chasms 
of  volcanoes,  which  serve  as  a  mouth  and  nostrils. 
Certain  aspects  of  the  planets,  he  says,  occasion  winds 
and  tempests,  arising  from  the  sympathy  which  the 
earth  has  with  the  heavens,  whereby  it  instinctively 
perceives  the  positions  of  the  stars. 

Plato  and  the  Stoics  had  adopted  a  similar  theory, 
and  Kepler,  with  them,  considered  the  earth  a  living 
creature,  which,  by  the  heaving  of  the  huge  bellows 
of  its  lungs,  occasioned  the  tides.  Besides  other  argu- 
ments to  prove  that  the  earth  is  animated,  he  remarks 
that  in  the  Scheldt,  at  Antwerp,  the  tide  rested  one 
whole  day,  because  the  earth  was  in  a  fainting-fit. 
Perhaps  also,  in  1550,  it  was  seized  with  a  cough, 
when,  in  the  British  Ocean,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Thames,  the  tide  ebbed  and  flowed  several  times  with- 
in twenty-four  hours ! 

"  Other  writers, "  says  Cuvier,  "  have  adopted  the 
ideas  of  Kepler,  and,  like  that  great  astronomer,  have 


HISTORY    OF    THE    SCIENCE.  7 

considered  the  globe  itself  as  possessed  of  vital  facul- 
ties. According  to  them,  a  vital  fluid  circulates  in  it ; 
a  process  of  assimilation  goes  on  in  it,  as  well  as  in 
animated  bodies ;  every  particle  of  it  is  alive ;  it  pos- 
sesses instinct  and  volition,  even  to  the  most  elemen- 
tary molecules,  which  attract  and  repel  each  other, 
according  to  sympathies  and  antipathies.  Each  kind 
of  mineral  has  the  power  of  converting  immense 
masses  into  its  own  nature,  as  we  convert  our  food 
into  flesh  and  blood.  The  mountains  are  the  respira- 
tory organs  of  the  globe,  and  the  schists  its  organs  of 
secretion ;  it  is  by  these  latter  that  it  decomposes  the 
water  of  the  sea,  in  order  to  produce  the  matters 
ejected  by  volcanoes.  The  veins  are  carious  sores, 
abscesses  of  the  mineral  kingdom ;  and  the  metals 
are  products  of  rottenness  and  disease,  which  is  the 
reason  that  almost  all  of  them  have  so  bad  a  smell !  " 

William  Whiston,  an  English  divine  and  mathema- 
tician, published  a  "New  Theory  of  the  Earth"  in 
1708,  according  to  which  he  deduced  the  origin  of  the 
terrestrial  globe  from  the  condensation  of  the  atmos- 
phere of  one  comet,  and  the  Deluge  from  the  con- 
tact of  another.  Among  the  daring  speculations  in 
which  this  theorist  indulged,  there  is,  however,  one, 
which  he.  advanced  on  fanciful  grounds,  but  which  has 
derived  much  probability  from  the  researches  of  re- 
cent inquirers.  He  imagined  the  existence  in  the 
earth  of  a  central  nucleus,  which,  while  it  was  a  com- 
etary  body,  becoming  intensely  heated  by  its  near  ap- 
proach to  the  sun,  has  preserved  ever  since  a  great 
part  of  the  high  temperature  which  it  had  acquired. 
This  doctrine  of  central  heat  and  the  gradual  cooling 


8  WONDERS    OF   GEOLOGY. 

of  the  globe  found  an  able  advocate  in  the  late  Baron 
Fourier ;  and  many  facts  have  been  brought  forward 
in  support  of  it  by  other  writers.  There  is  nothing 
extravagant  in  the  length  of  time  during  which  Whis- 
ton  supposed  the  process  of  cooling  to  have  been 
going  on  in  the  earth ;  for  in  1680  a  comet  passed  so 
near  to  the  sun,  that,  from  the  calculations  of  astrono- 
mers, it  must  have  acquired  a  temperature  two  thou- 
sand times  that  of  red-hot  iron,  and  would  require 
fifty  thousand  years  in  cooling.  Hence,  if  the  earth 
was  once  a  comet,  its  nucleus  would  still  be  burning ; 
since  the  epoch  of  its  access  to  the  sun  is  supposed 
not  to  have  exceeded  six  thousand  years. 

Benedict  de  Maillet,  who  held  the  office  of  French 
Consul  in  Egypt,  and  was  the  author  of  some  philo- 
sophical works,  was  a  speculator  of  a  different  order 
from  the  preceding.  About  the  middle  of  the  last 
century,  appeared  one  of  his  productions,  containing 
some  geological  theories,  abundantly  absurd  and  ex- 
travagant, but  deserving  of  some  notice,  as  being 
founded  on  accurate  and  extensive  observations  of  ex- 
isting phenomena.  This  gentleman,  in  the  course  of 
his  travels,  remarking  the  occurrence  of  sea-shells 
and  other  marine  remains  on  the  summits  of  the  high- 
est mountains,  inferred  that  the  present  continents 
were  entirely  formed  beneath  the  surface  of  water, 
which  must  have  originally  covered  the  whole  earth ; 
that,  ever  since  the  first  appearance  of  islands  in  the 
universal  ocean,  the  waters  have  been  gradually  de- 
creasing; in  proof  of  which  he  instanced  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Delta  of  Egypt,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile, 
and  of  similar  tracts  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and 


HISTORY    OF   THE    SCIENCE.  9 

the  alleged  extension  of  the  sea-shores  in  various 
places.  He  supposed  this  gradual  decline  of  the  sea 
to  be  still  in  progress ;  and  his  opinions  so  far  have 
been  admitted  by  many  other  geologists. 

But  De  Maillet  not  only  conceived  the  whole  globe 
to  have  been  for  many  thousands  of  years  covered 
with  water,  but  he  further  alleged  that  this  water 
gradually  retreated,  that  all  the  land  animals  were 
originally  denizens  of  the  sea,  that  man  himself  com- 
menced his  career  as  a  fish ;  supporting  his  reveries 
by  adverting  to  stories  of  sirens,  mermaids,  tritons, 
satyrs,  and  such  like  monsters  ;  and  asserting  that  even 
now  animals  may  be  found  in  the  ocean,  half-human 
and  half-fish,  but  whose  descendants  will  in  time  be- 
come perfect  men  and  women.  Strange  and  incon- 
sistent as  are  these  speculations,  they  have  been  re- 
vived and  extended  by  more  recent  theorists.  They 
suppose  that  the  earth  was  originally  in  a  fluid  state,  that 
the  primitive  fluid  gave  existence  to  animals,  which 
were  at  first  only  of  the  most  simple  kind,  as  the  mo- 
was,  and  other  infusory  and  microscopic  species ;  that 
in  process  of  time,  and  by  assuming  different  habi- 
tudes, the  races  of  animals  became  complicated,  and 
at  length  appeared  in  that  diversity  of  form  and 
character  which  we  now  perceive.  By  means  of 
those  various  races  of  animals,  part  of  the  waters  of 
the  sea  have  gradually  been  converted  into  calcareous 
earth  ;  while  the  vegetables,  concerning  the  origin  and 
metamorphoses  of  which  these  writers  choose  to  be 
quite  silent,  have,  on  their  part,  converted  a  portion 
of  the  same  water  into  clay  :  these  two  earths,  on 
being  deprived  of  the  characters  which  vitality  had 


10  WONDERS    OF    GEOLOGY. 

impressed  on  them,  are  by  an  ultimate  analysis  re- 
solved into  silex ;  and  hence  the  reason  that  the  old- 
est mountains  are  more  siliceous  than  the  rest.  All 
the  solid  parts  of  the  earth,  therefore,  owe  their  ex- 
istence to  life,  and  without  life  the  globe  would  still 
be  entirely  liquid. 

Other  theorists  ascribe  the  origin  of  the  earth  to 
fragments  which  have  fallen  successively  from  the 
heavens,  in  the  manner  of  aerolites,  or  meteoric  stones ; 
and  thus  account  for  the  relics  of  strange  monsters, 
which  they  suppose  to  have  been  the  inhabitants  of 
unknown  worlds. 

One  bold  speculator  imagines  the  earth  to  be  hol- 
low, and  places  within  it  a  magnetic  nucleus,  which 
is  transported  from  one  pole  to  the  other,  by  the  at- 
traction of  comets,  carrying  with  it  the  centre  of 
gravity,  and  the  mass  of  waters  on  the  surface,  and 
thus  alternately  drowning  either  hemisphere. 

A  few  years  ago,  an  American  officer  named  Symmes 
asserted  that  the  earth  is  not  only  hollow,  but  also  that 
the  interior  is  habitable,  or  at  least  accessible ;  for 
he  alleged  that  an  opening  leading  to  it  exists  some- 
where in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  he  actually  pro- 
posed to  explore  it. 

Leibnitz,  in  1680,  advanced  the  bold  hypothesis, 
that  the  earth  was  originally  a  burning  luminous  mass, 
the  gradual  refrigeration  of  which  produced  the  primi- 
tive rocks,  forming  at  first  a  solid  crust ;  and  this  being 
ruptured,  owing  to  irregular  contraction,  the  frag- 
ments fell  into  the  universal  ocean  formed  by  the  con- 
densation of  vapors  on  the  surface  of  the  globe. 
He  proceeded  to  trace  the  production  of  inundations, 


HISTORY    OF    THE    SCIENCE.  11 

convulsions,  and  attrition  of  solid  matter,  by  its  subse- 
quent deposition  constituting  the  various  kinds  of  sedi- 
mentary or  stratified  rocks.  Hence,  he  observes,  may 
be  conceived  a  double  origin  of  primitive  masses: 
1.  By  cooling,  after  igneous  fusion;  2.  By  reconcre- 
tion  from  aqueous  solution.  "  Here,"  says  Cony- 
beare,  "  we  have  distinctly  stated  the  great  basis  of 
every  scientific  classification  of  rock  formations." 

Many  writers  now  successively  appeared,  who  ad- 
vantageously directed  their  attention  to  the  investiga- 
tion of  particular  topics  connected  with  this  subject ; 
as,  the  causes  and  phenomena  of  earthquakes  and  vol- 
canoes, the  formation  of  deltas,  or  low  tracts  at  the 
mouths  of  rivers,  the  actual  structure  and  position  of 
mineral  strata,  and  the  description  of  fossil  remains 
of  animal  or  vegetable  origin.  Among  those  who 
rendered  important  services  to  the  cause  of  science 
by  advancing  general  views  of  the  theory  of  the  earth, 
were  Dr.  James  Hutton,  of  Edinburgh,  and  Professor 
Werner,  of  Freiberg,  in  Saxony.  These  celebrated 
philosophers  produced  systems  in  one  respect  diamet- 
rically opposite  to  each  other ;  for,  while  Hutton  at- 
tributed the  formation  of  the  older  rocks  entirely  to 
the  agency  of  fire,  Werner  insisted  that  they  origi- 
nated from  solution  in  a  liquid.  The  German  geolo- 
gist, however,  deserves  the  credit  of  having  directed 
the  attention  of  his  pupils  to  the  constant  relations  of 
mineral  groups,  and  their  regular  order  of  superpo- 
sition ;  distinguishing  the  classes  of  primary  rocks,  or 
those  destitute  of  organic  remains,  as  granite  and 
gneiss ;  transition  or  secondary  rocks,  formed  from  the 
disintegration  of  the  preceding,  and  occasionally  ex 


12  WONDERS   OF   GEOLOGY. 

hibiting  traces  of  organic  remains,  as  grauwacke,  a 
mechanical  compound  of  agglutinated  fragments  ;  floetz, 
or  tertiary  rocks,  including  the  coal  strata,  chalk,  and 
freestone,  some  of  which  abound  in  organic  relics; 
and,  besides  these,  alluvial  strata  and  volcanic  rocks, 
the  latter  of  which  he  seems  to  have  regarded  as  of 
little  importance,  for  he  asserted  that  in  the  primeval 
ages  of  the  world  there  were  no  volcanoes. 

The  great  merit  of  Hutton  consists  in  his  having  de- 
monstrated the  igneous  origin  of  basalt,  and  other  trap 
rocks ;  the  high  probability  that  granite  is  derived 
from  the  same  source,  and  that  the  other  primary 
non-fossiliferous  rocks  have  been  more  or  less  sub- 
jected to  the  agency  of  fire.  "  The  ruins  of  an  older 
world,"  said  Hutton,  "  are  visible  in  the  present  struc- 
ture of  our  planet ;  and  the  strata  which  now  compose 
our  continents  have  been  once  beneath  the  sea,  and 
were  formed  out  of  the  waste  of  preexisting  conti- 
nents. The  same  forces  are  still  destroying,  by  chemi- 
cal decomposition  or  mechanical  violence,  even  the 
hardest  rocks,  and  transporting  the  materials  to  the 
sea,  where  they  are  spread  out,  and  form  strata  analo- 
gous to  those  of  more  ancient  date.  Although  loosely 
deposited  along  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  they  become 
afterwards  altered  and  consolidated  by  volcanic  heat, 
and  then  heaved  up,  fractured  and  contorted." 

The  theory  of  Hutton  was  admirably  illustrated 
and  ably  supported  by  Professor  Playfair,  of  Edin- 
burgh, while  it  was  assailed  by  Murray,  Kirwan, 
Deluc,  and  others ;  a  violent  controversy  being  main- 
tained between  the  partisans  of  Werner,  who  were 
called  Neptunists,  as  ascribing  the  formation  of  all 


HISTORY   OF   THE    SCIENCE.  13 

rocks  to  water, — and  those  of  Hutton,  styled  Vulcanists, 
because  they  attributed  the  original  formation  of  rocks 
to  fire.  The  Neptunists,  for  a  time,  constituted  by 
much  the  more  numerous  party ;  but  in  the  course  of 
these  discussions,  it  was  at  length  perceived  that  specu- 
lation had,  on  both  sides,  been  carried  further  than 
was  warranted  by  the  extent  of  existing  information ; 
and  that,  while  neither  the  theory  of  Werner  nor  that 
of  Hutton  could  be  considered  as  affording  an  ex- 
planation of  all  the  phenomena,  or  making  near  ap- 
proaches to  perfection,  there  were  many  points  with 
respect  to  which  the  researches  and  observations  of 
both  these  philosophers  contributed  to  the  extension  of 
our  knowledge  and  the  improvement  of  the  science. 

"  A  new  school,"  says  Lyell,  "  at  last  arose,  who 
professed  the  strictest  neutrality,  and  the  utmost  indiffer- 
ence to  the  systems  of  Werner  and  Hutton,  and  who 
were  resolved  diligently  to  devote  their  labors  to  ob- 
servation. The  reaction,  provoked  by  the  intemper- 
ance of  the  contending  parties,  now  produced  a  ten- 
dency to  extreme  caution.  Speculative  views  were 
discountenanced  ;  and,  through  fear  of  exposing  them- 
selves to  the  suspicion  of  a  bias  towards  the  dogmas 
of  a  party,  some  geologists  became  anxious  to  enter- 
tain no  opinion  whatever  on  the  causes  of  phenomena, 
and  were  inclined  to  skepticism,  even  where  the  con- 
clusions deducible  from  observed  facts  scarcely  ad- 
mitted of  reasonable  doubt. 

"  But,  although  the  reluctance  to  theorize  was  car- 
ried somewhat  to  excess,  no  measure  could  be  more 
salutary,  at  such  a  moment,  than  a  suspension  of  all 
attempts  to  form  what  were  termed  theories  of  the 


14    •  WONDERS    OF   GEOLOGY. 

earth.  A  great  body  of  new  data  was  required,  and 
the  Geological  Society  of  London,  founded  in  1807, 
conduced  greatly  to  the  attainment  of  this  desirable 
end.  To  multiply  and  record  observations,  and  pa- 
tiently to  await  the  result  at  some  future  period,  was 
the  object  proposed  by  them  ;  and  it  was  their  favorite 
maxim,  that  the  time  was  not  yet  come  for  a  general 
system  of  geology,  but  that  all  must  be  content,  for 
many  years,  to  be  exclusively  engaged  in  furnishing 
materials  for  future  generalizations.  By  acting  up  to 
these  principles  with  consistency,  they  in  a  few  years 
disarmed  all  prejudice,  and  rescued  the  science  from 
the  imputation  of  being  a  dangerous,  or  at  best  but  a 
visionary  pursuit." 

One  train  of  research  which  was  now  pursued  with 
great  ardor,  and  which  contributed  much  to  the  im- 
provement of  science,  was  respecting  the  nature  of 
the  organic  remains  which  were  found  imbedded  in 
various  strata  in  difFerents  parts  of  the  world.  Cuvier, 
the  celebrated  anatomist  and  zoologist,  Professor  of 
Natural  History  at  Paris,  acquired  great  distinction  by 
the  number,  accuracy,  and  importance  of  the  discover- 
ies which  he  made  relative  to  the  generic  and  specific 
characters  of  the  animals,  fragments  of  whose  bones, 
and  other  constituent  parts,  came  under  notice  in  the 
course  of  his  long  and  laborious  investigations.  He 
ascertained,  that  numerous  living  beings,  of  different 
classes,  which  have  no  existing  analogues,  once  in- 
habited the  surface  of  the  globe  ;  and  that  the  relative 
priority  of  the  several  strata  might,  to  a  certain  extent, 
be  inferred  from  the  characters  of  the  organic  remains 
included  in  them. 


HISTORY    OF    THE    SCIENCE.  15 

The  results  of  the  researches  of  eminent  men  rela- 
tive to  these  subjects,  and  those  of  other  geologists 
concerning  the  mineralogical  structure  and  position 
of  rocks  and  mountains,  and  the  modifying  influence 
of  existing  causes  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  have 
greatly  contributed  to  the  augmentation  of  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  nature  and  arrangement  of  the  super- 
ficial strata  of  the  planet  on  which  we  dwell,  which 
must  be  regarded  as  the  only  sure  foundation  of  a 
true  system  of  geognosy,  that  may  verify  or  over- 
turn the  conjectural  speculations  of  those  philosophers 
who  wrote  during  the  infancy  of  the  science. 

The  highly  interesting  nature  and  relative  impor- 
tance of  the  discoveries  of  modern  geologists  have 
been  most  eloquently  unfolded  by  two  distinguished 
writers,  who  have  themselves  contributed  in  no  small 
degree  to  extend  the  boundaries  of  knowledge. 

"  When  we  compare  the  result  of  observations  in 
the  last  thirty  years,"  says  the  author  last  quoted, 
"  with  those  of  the  three  preceding  centuries,  we  can- 
not but  look  forward  with  the  most  sanguine  expecta- 
tions to  the  degree  of  excellence  to  which  geology 
may  be  carried,  even  by  the  labors  of  the  present 
generation.  Never,  perhaps,  did  any  science,  with 
the  exception  of  astronomy,  unfold,  in  an  equally 
brief  period,  so  many  novel  and  unexpected  truths, 
and  overturn  so  many  preconceived  opinions.  The 
senses  had  for  ages  declared  the  earth  to  be  at  rest, 
until  the  astronomer  taught  that  it  was  carried  through 
space  with  inconceivable  rapidity.  In  like  manner 
was  the  surface  of  this  planet  regarded  as  having  re- 
mained unaltered  since  its  creation,  until  the  geolo- 


16  WONDERS    OF    GEOLOGY. 

gist  proved  that  it  had  been  the  theatre  of  reiterated 
change,  and  was  still  the  subject  of  slow  but  never 
ending  fluctuations.  The  discovery  of  other  systems 
in  the  boundless  regions  of  space  was  the  triumph  of 
astronomy ;  to  trace  the  same  system  through  vari- 
ous transformations,  —  to  behold  it  at  successive  eras 
adorned  with  different  hills  and  valleys,  lakes  and 
seas,  and  peopled  with  new  inhabitants,  was  the  de- 
lightful meed  of  geological  research.  By  the  geome- 
ter, were  measured  the  regions  of  space,  and  the  rela- 
tive distances  of  the  heavenly  bodies ;  by  the  geolo- 
gist, myriads  of  ages  were  reckoned,  not  by  arithmetical 
computation,  but  by  a  train  of  physical  events, —  a 
succession  of  phenomena  in  the  animate  and  inani- 
mate worlds,  —  signs  which  convey  to  our  minds  more 
definite  ideas  than  figures  can  do  of  the  immensity 
of  time." 

"  By  the  discoveries  of  a  new  science,  —  the  very 
name  of  which  has  been  but  a  few  years  ingrafted  on 
our  language,  —  we  learn  that  the  manifestations  of 
God's  power  on  earth  have  not  been  limited  to  the 
few  thousand  years  of  man's  existence.  The  geolo- 
gist tells  us,  by  the  clearest  interpretation  of  the  phe- 
nomena which  his  labors  have  brought  to  light,  that 
our  globe  has  been  subject  to  vast  physical  revolu- 
tions. He  counts  his  time,  not  by  celestial  cycles, 
but  by  an  index  which  he  has  found  in  the  solid  frame- 
work of  the  globe  itself.  He  sees  a  long  succession 
of  monuments,  each  of  which  may  have  required 
a  thousand  ages  for  its  elaboration.  He  arranges 
them  in  chronological  order,  observes  on  them  the 
marks  of  skill  and  wisdom,  and  finds  within  them  the 


USES    OF    GEOLOGY.  17 

tombs  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  He  finds 
strange  and  unlooked-for  changes  in  the  forms  and 
fashions  of  organic  life  during  each  of  the  long  periods 
he  thus  contemplates.  He  traces  these  changes  back- 
wards through  each  successive  era,  till  he  reaches  a 
time  when  the  monuments  lose  all  symmetry,  and  the 
types  of  organic  life  are  no  longer  seen.  He  has  then 
entered  on  the  dark  age  of  nature's  history ;  and  he 
closes  the  old  chapter  of  her  records.  This  account 
has  so  much  of  what  is  exactly  true,  that  it  hardly  de- 
serves the  name  of  figurative  description."  * 


USES  OF   GEOLOGY. 

As  already  remarked,  geology  has  been  considered 
as  a  science  comprising  an  inquiry  into  universal  na- 
ture, and  embracing  in  its  scope  all  time  present,  past, 
and  to  come.  But  in  its  more  restricted  acceptatibn, 
and  as  taking  cognizance  only  of  the  origin  and  struc- 
ture of  the  earth,  it  takes  a  wide  range  of  investigation, 
and  leads  to  many  useful  practical  results. 

Whatever  definition  we  adopt,  geology  is  by  no 
means  to  be  regarded  as  a  mere  single  or  isolated 
department  of  knowledge ;  but  the  pursuits  which 
pass  under  this  general  denomination  are,  in  fact,  a 
combination  of  all  the  physical  sciences,  of  all  those 

*  Discourse  on  the  Studies  of  the  University,  by  Adam  Sedg- 
wick,  M.  A.,F.  R.S. 
2 


18  WONDERS    OF    GEOLOGY. 

studies  which  have  the  harmonies  and  beauties  of  na- 
ture as  their  object,  and  the  perfections  of  her  Divine 
Author  as  their  ultimate  end.  From  the  magnitude 
and  importance  of  the  objects  which  it  contemplates, 
geology  may  be  considered  as  vying  with  the  most 
exalted  of  the  natural  sciences  in  grandeur  and  ex- 
tent ;  while,  in  the  varied  and  attractive  character  of 
its  investigations,  it  will  be  found  to  surpass  them  all. 
So  diversified  and  so  universal,  indeed,  is  the  sphere  of 
its  inquiries,  as  to  afford  themes  for  contemplation, 
fitted  for  every  order  of  mind  ;  and,  while  it  often,  in 
the  same  object,  calls  attention  to  facts  which  the  infant 
understanding  may  comprehend,  it  offers  problems  for 
solution,  which  the  loftiest  intellect  is  unable  to  deter- 
mine. The  shell  imbedded  in  limestone,  or  the  vege- 
table converted  into  coal,  the  child  may  perceive  to  be, 
the  one  a  marine,  the  other  n  terrestrial  production  ; 
but  the  process  of  the  conversion  of  that  shell  into 
limestone,  while  the  animal  matter  is  often  replaced  by 
flint,  —  or  the  agency  by  which  the  plant  has  been 
transmuted  into  a  mineral  substance,  while  the  woody 
structure  is  still  retained,  —  each  involves  questions 
which  the  most  advanced  state  of  our  knowledge  is 
scarcely  sufficient  to  determine. 

In  addition  to  other  advantages  which  might  be  ad- 
duced, it  must  not  be  forgotten,  that  geology,  notwith- 
standing the  important  advances  which  it  has  recently 
made,  is  still  a  youthful  and  a  progressive  study;  all 
whose  investigations  possess  the  charm  of  novelty  ; 
all  whose  discoveries  bear  the  gloss  of  freshness  to 
recommend  them.  When  Columbus  revealed  a  new 
hemisphere  to  mankind,  the  old  world  was  eager  and 


rSES    OF    GEOLOGY.  19 

anxious  to  precipitate  itself  upon  the  new ;  and,  when 
science  discloses  a  fresh  world  beneath  our  feet,  we 
cannot  be  surprised  that  all  are  eager  and  anxious  to 
explore  it. 

Yet  even  the  variety,  extent,  and  novelty  of  geologi- 
cal investigation  would  never  have  procured  for  it  so 
high  a  degree  of  popularity  and  favor  as  it  has  now 
attained  ;  nor  have  enrolled  among  its  students  men  of 
all  ranks,  from  the  scholar  and  the  philosopher,  to  the 
laborer  in  the  quarry,  and  the  workman  in  the  mine ; 
were  it  not  recommended  by  the  more  valuable  ad- 
vantages of  practical  utility,  and  application  to  many 
of  the  most  essential  wants  of  mankind. 

Before  the  benefits  of  philosophic  research  and  dis- 
covery were  rendered  so  palpable  as  they  have  now 
become,  it  was  the  fate  of  this,  like  some  other  scien- 
tific studies,  to  be  regarded  as  a  merely  speculative  and 
visionary  pursuit,  which,  however  well  adapted  to  in- 
terest the  philosopher  in  his  closet,  was  utterly  useless 
and  uninteresting  to  the  great  mass  of  mankind.  This 
prejudice,  though  now,  in  a  great  measure,  dispelled, 
is  still  firmly  implanted  in  the  minds  of  many,  who 
have  paid  little  attention  to  the  subject. 

Among  those  economical  advantages  which  the  sci- 
ence of  geology  is  calculated  to  confer,  its  assistance 
to  the  miner  may  be  first  adduced.  It  is  at  once  the 
object  and  the  boast  of  geology,  to  redeem  the  search 
after  metallic  ores  from  the  mere  blind  chance,  or  still 
more  benighted  superstition,  by  which  it  has  frequently 
been  governed  ;  and  by  showing  that  mineral  substan- 
ces have  not  been  distributed  at  random,  but  that  each 
is  referable  to  some  peculiar  geological  deposit,  to  di- 


20  WONDERS    OF    GEOLOGY. 

rect  the  search  for  them  on  fixed  and  enlightened  prin- 
ciples, and  in  conformity  with  those  laws  of  nature 
which  regulate  their  occurrence. 

The  metals  are  found  to  occur  in  a  great  variety  of 
situations.  In  one  country  they  are  connected  with 
certain  formations,  and  in  another  with  those  of  a 
different  character.  They  are  also  often  distributed, 
under  these  diversified  circumstances,  in  districts  dif- 
fering in  character ;  thus  rendering  their  discovery 
a  matter  of  mere  accident,  unless  the  light  which 
geology  furnishes  be  brought  to  aid  the  search  after 
them. 

But  there  is  a  mineral  substance  more  precious  than 
silver.,  more  valuable  than  gold,  the  occurrence  and 
profitable  discovery  of  which  geology  alone  is  able  to 
determine,  and  that  substance  is  coal.  It  is  obvious, 
that,  if  the  mines  of  the  precious  metals  —  unphilosoph- 
ically  so  termed  —  were  closed  to-morrow,  and  gold 
and  silver  no  longer  raised  for  the  use  of  man,  society, 
with  some  very  considerable  revolution  and  difficulty 
in  the  mode  of  adopting  other  imaginary  representa- 
tives of  value,  would  go  on  nearly  as  before  ;  but  de- 
prive civilized  communities  of  their  coal,  and  how 
fatal  would  be  such  a  catastrophe  to  the  welfare  and 
happiness  of  the  great  family  of  mankind  ! 

In  illustration  of  the  enormous  expense  which  might 
have  been  saved  by  an  acquaintance  with  the  princi- 
ples of  geology,  in  the  search  after  coal,  Richardson 
gives  us  the  following  facts.  "  Some  few  years  only 
have  elapsed  since  the  deceptive  appearance  of  lignite, 
or  imperfect  coal,  in  strata  appertaining  to  the  Wealden 
formation,  at  Bexhill,  in  Sussex,  on  some  land  belong- 


USES    OF    GEOLOGY.  21 

ing  to  the  duchess  of  Dorset,  induced  certain  parties, 
imperfectly  acquainted  with  geological  science,  to  pre- 
vail on  her  Grace  to  institute  a  search  for  coal  ;  and 
it  was  not  till  after  works  of  the  most  extensive  and 
costly  nature  had  been  constructed,  and  an  outlay  of 
.£10,000  incurred,  that  an  enterprise,  hopeless  from 
the  first,  was  at  length  abandoned. 

"  Many  attempts  of  a  like  abortive  kind  have  been 
made,  from  the  county  of  Somerset  to  Wales ;  and 
Mr.  Murchison,  in  his  admirable  work  on  the  Silurian 
System,  mentions  numerous  enterprises  all  similarly 
unsuccessful.  One  of  the  most  recent  and  the  most 
ill-judged  of  these  consisted  in  an  endeavour  made,  a 
short  time  since,  at  the  Kingsthorpe  pits,  within  a  mile 
of  Northampton.  The  author  was,  at  that  time,  lec- 
turing in  the  neighbourhood,  and  his  opinion  was  re- 
quested as  to  the  probable  success  of  the  undertaking. 
The  geological  site  of  the  locality,  which  is  about  the 
middle  of  the  Oolite  formation,  was  decisive  of  the 
futility  of  the  enterprise,  and  he  therefore  denounced 
it  as  mistaken,  and  strongly  protested  against  its  farther 
prosecution.  His  remonstrances,  as  is  usually  the  case 
on  these  occasions,  were  disregarded,  as  those  of  a 
mere  theorist ;  it  appeared  that  a  person  employed  to 
sink  a  well  near  the  spot,  having  bored  through  a  bed 
of  clay,  which  bore  some  slight  resemblance  to  the 
chinch  or  clay  which  frequently  overlies  the  coal,  had 
advised  the  undertaking ;  and  thus,  on  a  fact  of  the 
most  common  geological  occurrence,  —  the  similarity  of 
one  bed  of  clay  to  another, —  the  speculation  was  set  on 
foot ;  a  joint-stock  company  was  organized ;  a  large 
amount  of  capital  subscribed  by  parties,  many  of  them 


22  WONDERS     OF    GEOLOGY. 

little  able  to  sustain  even  a  slight  pecuniary  loss ; 
steam-engines  were  erected  ;  shafts  were  sunk  ;  and 
an  enormous  outlay  was  incurred. 

"  This  was  the  situation  of  affairs,  during  the  visit 
of  the  author  in  1839.  The  result  may  easily  be  an- 
ticipated ;  the  works,  after  being  extensively  prose- 
cuted, were  finally  closed,  and  the  enterprise  abandoned 
for  want  of  funds,  after  an  expenditure  of  <£  20,000  ! 
Such  was  the  termination  of  an  enterprise  which  an 
acquaintance  with  the  simplest  principles  of  geology 
would  have  decided,  from  the  first,  to  be  altogether 
fruitless.  It  will  thus  be  seen,  that  the  power,  which  the 
skilful  geologist  possesses,  to  determine  on  the  exist- 
ence or  non-existence  of  coal  in  any  given  locality, 
may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  striking  proofs  of 
the  importance  and  usefulness  of  the  science." 

The  cultivator  of  the  soil  is,  in  like  manner,  bene- 
fited by  that  insight  into  the  structure  of  the  earth, 
which  geology  is  enabled  to  supply ;  for,  as  the  su- 
perficial soil  is  usually  derived  from  the  disintegration 
of  the  rocks  beneath,  an  acquaintance  with  the  nature 
and  chemical  composition  of  those  rocks  cannot  but 
prove  of  indispensable  utility  in  pointing  out  the  most 
successful  mode  of  cultivation.  Those  lands  are  most 
productive  and  least  liable  to  exhaustion,  which  contain 
a  due  admixture  of  the  three  earths,  clay,  flint,  and 
lime  ;  but,  as  the  instances  are  comparatively  few  in 
which  nature  has  bestowed  the  three  substances  in 
unison,  it  is  the  study  of  the  scientific  agriculturist  to 
supply  the  deficient  material,  by  the  introduction  of  a 
counteracting  substance  ;  to  correct,  for  instance,  the 
moisture  of  clay  soils  by  the  application  of  lime ;  and 


USES    OF    GEOLOGY.  23 

to  remedy  the  dryness  of  sandy  deposits  by  a  judicious 
tempering  of  clay.  And  lastly,  by  consulting  a  good 
geological  map,  and  ascertaining  those  districts,  the 
deposits  of  which  are  analogous  to  those  of  his  own 
neighbourhood,  and  learning  the  mode  of  cultivation 
most  successfully  pursued  in  that  locality,  he  may  as- 
certain the  kind  of  tillage  best  adapted  to  his  own. 

The  inestimable  benefit  of  water  is  another  boon, 
which,  under  peculiar  conditions  of  the  district,  geolo- 
gy enables  the  scientific  agriculturist  to  obtain.  The 
Artesian  wells,  so  called  from  their  being  conceived  to 
have  been  first  introduced  in  the  province  of  Artois,  in 
France,  have  been  frequently  brought  before  the  notice 
of  the  public.  The  chief  advantage  of  this  invention 
consists  in  the  circumstance,  that  we  are  by  this 
means  enabled  to  procure  copious  supplies  of  water, 
from  depths,  and  under  conditions,  which  would  either 
preclude  our  sinking  a  well  altogether,  or  without  such 
an  expense  as  would  impose  a  prohibition  on  the  en- 
terprise. The  plan  has  been  adopted  -with  eminent 
success,  in  the  vicinity  of  London,  and  other  places  ; 
but  the  most  important  enterprise  of  this  kind  is  that 
which  has  recently  been  brought  to  a  most  successful 
termination  in  the  Plaine  de  Grenelle,  near  Paris, 
where,  after  boring  to  an  immense  depth,  sufficient 
water  is  ejected  in  a  few  days,  to  supply  all  Paris  for 
twelve  months. 

Nor  is  the  knowledge  of  this  science  scarcely  less 
essential  to  the  architect  and  the  student  of  the  arts ; 
since  an  acquaintance  with  its  principles  affords  a  sure 
guide  in  the  important  object  of  selecting  a  good  and 
durable  quality  of  stone,  and  avoiding  a  perishable  and 


24  WONDERS     OF    GEOLOGY. 

unworthy  material.  Many  of  the  public  edifices  of 
England,  both  in  the  capital  and  the  provinces,  are  fast 
hastening  to  decay ;  several  of  the  buildings  of  the 
universities  have  required  to  be  nearly  rebuilt ;  and 
many  of  the  newly  erected  churches  are  in  course  of 
premature  dilapidation,  owing  to  the  fragile  and  decom- 
posing nature  of  the  stone.  The  Capitol  at  Washing- 
ton, in  our  own  country,  the  finest  senate-house  at 
present  in  existence,  is  in  a  like  state  of  disfigurement 
from  the  same  cause. 

The  sculptor  is  no  less  indebted  to  geology,  and  its 
associate  science,  mineralogy,  in  the  choice  of  a.  mate- 
rial for  the  exercise  of  his  art.  Some  of  the  best 
productions  of  the  artist's  skill,  owing  to  the  choice  of 
an  unworthy  material,  have  become  chipped  or  decom- 
posed, and  have  thus  lost  the  finest  lineaments  of  the 
features  and  the  most  delicate  graces  of  expression ; 
or  the  stain  occasioned  by  metallic  admixture,  or  the 
impure  character  of  the  limestone,  has  veined  or  dis- 
figured the  most  perfect  examples  of  art.  Even 
where  these  actual  defects  have  not  existed,  the  beauty 
and  effect  of  a  statue  are  known  to  be  dependent  on 
the  more  or  less  crystalline  character  of  the  stone,  and 
the  efforts  of  the  Greek  artist  have  been  largely  as- 
sisted by  the  quality  of  the  substance  on  which  he  was 
employed.  We  have  only  to  place  a  cast  in  plas- 
ter beside  the  antique  statue  from  which  it  has  been 
modelled,  to  perceive  in  how  important  a  degree  the 
expression  of  sculpture  is  enhanced  by  the  purity  of 
the  material  of  which  it  is  composed. 

The  connection  of  geology  with  letters  is  evident 
from  the  distinguished  merit  of  the  -works  of  its  most 


ASTRONOMICAL    VIEW    OF    THE    EARTH.  25 

eminent  professors.  The  publications  of  Buckland, 
Lyell,  Mantell,  Murchison,  Phillips,  Sedgwick,  Silliman, 
and  others,  are  as  much  an  honor  to  letters  as  they  are 
to  science ;  and  the  study  unquestionably  owes  much 
of  its  popularity  and  favor,  among  the  most  intellectual 
classes  of  society,  to  the  genius  and  the  gifts  of  those 
who  have  made  it  so  peculiarly  their  study.  There  is 
nothing  in  history  —  nay,  even  in  poetry  or  romance  — 
so  startling  and  so  wonderful,  as  the  incontestible  facts 
disclosed  by  geology ;  and  these  have  found  fitting  de- 
lineators in  the  authors  we  have  named.  After  no- 
ticing the  observation  of  Lord  Byron, 

"  The  dust  we  tread  upon  was  once  alive," 

Mr.  Lyell  remarks,  that  the  philosopher  transcends 
the  poet ;  for,  while  the  one  only  utters  the  vague 
exclamation,  that  inanimate  matter  was  once  animate, 
it  is  the  triumph  of  the  other  not  only  to  describe  the 
form  it  assumed,  but  to  present  it  to  the  imagination 
endowed  with  all  the  faculties  of  actual  existence. 


ASTRONOMICAL  VIEW  OF  THE  EARTH. 

THE  solar  system  consists  of  the  sun,  —  whose  mass 
is  made  up  of  solid  matter,  which  is  surrounded  by  a 
luminous  atmosphere,  or  nebulosity,  —  and  of  eleven 
small  planets,  which  revolve  around  it  in  various  peri- 
ods ;  the  earth  being  the  third  in  distance  from  the  sun, 


26  WONDERS     OF    GEOLOGY. 

and  in  bulk,  as  compared  with  that  body,  of  the  size 
of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  globe  two  feet  in  diameter ;  and 
having  a  satellite,  the  moon,  revolving  round  it. 

Upon  examining  the  moon  with  powerful  telescopes, 
we  perceive  that  its  surface  is  diversified  by  hills  and 
valleys ;  that  it  is  a  congeries  of  mountains,  many  of 
which  are  manifestly  volcanic,  the  lava  currents  being 
distinctly  visible.  We  see,  in  fact,  a  torn,  crateriform, 
and  disturbed  surface,  like  that  which  we  may  con- 
ceive would  be  presented  by  our  earth,  were  the  bris- 
tling pinnacles  of  the  granite  mountains  unreduced, 
and  the  valleys  neither  smoothed,  nor  filled  up  by  sed- 
imentary deposits.  In  Venus  and  Mercury  the  moun- 
tains appear  to  be  enormous  ;  while  in  Jupiter  and 
Saturn  there  are  but  slight  traces  of  any  considerable 
elevations. 

Astronomy  instructs  us,  that,  in  the  original  condition 
of  the  solar  system,  the  sun  was  the  nucleus  of  a  nebu- 
losity, or  luminous  mass,  which  revolved  on  its  axis, 
and  extended  far  beyond  the  orbits  of  all  the  planets; 
the  planets  as  yet  having  no  existence.  Its  temperature 
gradually  diminished,  and  becoming  contracted  by 
cooling,  the  rotation  increased  in  rapidity,  and  zones 
of  nebulosity  were  successively  thrown  off,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  centrifugal  force  overpowering  the  cen- 
tral attraction  ;  the  condensation  of  these  separated 
masses  constituted  the  planets  and  satellites. 

But  this  view  of  the  conversion  of  gaseous  matter 
into  planetary  bodies  is  not  limited  to  our  own  system ; 
it  extends  to  the  formation  of  the  innumerable  suns  and 
worlds  which  are  distributed  throughout  the  universe. 
The  sublime  discoveries  of  modern  astronomers  have 


ASTRONOMICAL   VIEW    OF    THE    EARTH.  27 

shown  that  every  part  of  the  realms  of  space  abounds 
in  large  expansions  of  attenuated  matter,  termed  ne- 
bula, which  are  reflective  of  light,  of  variotis  figures, 
and  in  different  states  of  condensation,  —  from  that  of 
a  diffused  luminous  mass,  to  suns  and  planets  like  our 
own. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  this  assertion  appears  as- 
tounding,—  and  that  it  may  fairly  be  asked,  if  man, 
the  ephemeron  of  the  material  world,  can  measure  the 
vast  epochs  which  mark  the  progressive  development 
of  suns  and  systems.  The  genius  of  Herschel  has 
effected  this  wonderful  achievement,  and  explained  the 
successive  changes  by  which  suns  and  worlds  are 
formed,  through  the  agency  of  the  eternal  and  uner- 
ring laws  of  the  Almighty.  As  the  naturalist  in  the 
midst  of  a  forest  is  unable  by  a  glance  to  discover  that 
the  trees  around  him  are  in  a  state  of  progressive 
change ;  yet,  perceiving  that  there  are  plants  in  differ- 
ent stages  of  growth,  from  the  acorn  just  bursting  from 
the  soil,  to  the  lofty  oak  that  stands  the  monarch  of  the 
woods,  can  readily,  from  the  succession  of  changes 
thus  at  once  presented  to  his  view,  ascertain  the  pro- 
gression of  vegetable  life,  although  extending  over 
a  period  far  beyond  his  own  brief  existence  ;  —  in 
like  manner,  the  astronomer,  by  surveying  the  varied 
condition  of  .the  heavenly  bodies  around  him,  can, 
by  careful  induction,  determine  the  nature  of  those 
changes,  which,  as  regards  a  single  nebula,  the  human 
mind  might  otherwise  be  unable  to  ascertain.  Thus, 
Herschel  has  traced,  from  nebular  masses  of  abso- 
lute vagueness,  to  others  which  present  form  and 
structure,  the  effects  of  the  mysterious  law  which  gov- 


ZS  WONDERS     OF    GEOLOGY. 

ems  the  stupendous  stellular  phenomena  that  are  con- 
stantly taking  place.* 

The  doctrine  of  modern  astronomers  is,  that  the 
Milky  Way  is  a  shoal  of  stars  or  worlds,  constituting 
one  of  the  many  systems  of  worlds  which  the  tele- 
scope reveals  to  the  eye.  In  this  system,  the  sun  is 
a  planetary  orb  with  a  luminous  atmosphere,  the  cen- 
tral nucleus  of  a  once  extensive  nebulosity.  During 
the  condensation  of  this  nebula,  the  planets  were 
successively  thrown  off;  the  most  distant,  as  Hcrschel, 
being  the  first  or  most  ancient,  followed  by  Saturn, 
Jupiter,  the  four  asteroids,  Mars,  the  Earth,  Venus, 
and  Mercury ;  the  satellites,  as  distinct  worlds,  being 
the  most  recent  of  the  whole.  It  is  inferred,  that,  in 
any  given  state  of  the  rotating  solar  mass,  the  outer 
portion  or  ring  might  have  its  centrifugal  force  exactly 
balanced  by  gravity ;  but  increased  rotation  would 
throw  off  that  ring,  which  might  sometimes  retain  its 
figure,  of  which  we  have  a  beautiful  example  in 
Saturn. 

In  addition  to  the  appearances,  presented  by  the 
nebulae,  of  various  states  of  attenuation  and  of  solidity, 
we  have  in  the  orbs  of  our  own  system  evidence  of 
corresponding  gradations  of  density.  The  planets  near 
to  the  sun  are  denser  than  those  which  are  more  dis- 
tant ;  thus,  Mercury,  which  is  the  nearest,  is  the  heavi- 
est, being  almost  thrice  as  dense  as  the  earth ;  while 
the  density  of  Jupiter,  which  is  far  removed,  is  not 
more  than  one  third  that  of  our  planet ;  and  Saturn, 

*  For  a  fuller  view  of  this  subject,  see  "  Glance  at  the  Sci- 
ences " ;  article,  Astronomy. 


ASTRONOMICAL   VIEW    OF    THE    EARTH.  29 

which,  with  the  exception  of  Herschel,  is  the  remotest 
is  but  little  more  than  one  eighth  as  dense,  and  is 
supposed  to  be  as  light  as  cork. 

Though  an  unscientific  inquirer  may  find  it  difficult 
to  comprehend  that  our  planet  once  existed  in  a  gas- 
eous state,  this  difficulty  will  vanish  upon  considering 
the  nature  of  the  changes  that  all  the  materials  of. 
which  the  earth  is  composed  must  constantly  undergo. 
Water  offers  a  familiar  example  of  a  substance  existing 
on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  in  the  separate  states  of  rock, 
fluid,  and  vapor ;  for  water  consolidated  into  ice  is  as 
much  a  rock  as  granite  or  the  adamant,  and,  as  is  well 
known,  has  the  power  of  preserving,  for  an  indefinite 
period,  the  animals  and  vegetables  that  may  be  therein 
imbedded.  Yet,  upon  an  increase  of  temperature,  the 
glaciers  of  the  Alps,  and  the  icy  pinnacles  of  the  Arctic 
circles,  disappear ;  and,  by  a  degree  of  heat  still  higher, 
would  be  resolved  into  vapor ;  and  by  other  agencies 
still,  might  be  separated  into  two  invisible  gases,  —  oxy- 
gen and  hydrogen.  Metals  may  in  like  manner  be  con- 
verted into  gases  ;  and,  in  the  laboratory  of  the  chemist, 
all  kinds  of  matter  easily  pass  through  every  grade  of 
transmutation,  from  the  most  dense  and  compact  to  an 
aeriform  state.  We  cannot,  therefore,  refuse  our  as- 
sent to  the  conclusion,  that  the  entire  mass  of  our 
globe  might  be  resolved  into  a  permanently  gaseous 
form,  merely  by  the  dissolution  of  the  existing  combi- 
nations of  matter. 

From  the  light  thus  shed  by  modern  astronomy  upon 
many  of  the  dark  and  mysterious  pages  of  the  earth's 
physical  history,  we  learn  that  the  changes  which  have 
taken  place  in  the  substance  of  our  globe  —  all  the 


30  WONDERS     OF    GEOLOGY. 

wonderful  transmutations  of  its  crust  revealed  to  us  by 
geological  investigations  —  may  be  referable  to  the 
operation  of  the  one  simple  and  universal  law  by 
which  the  condensation  of  nebular  masses  into  worlds, 
through  periods  .of  time  so  immense  as  to  be  beyond 
the  power  of  human  comprehension,  is  governed. 

The  internal  heat  of  the  globe,  —  the  evidence  af- 
forded by  fossil  organic  remains,  of  a  higher  and  more 
equally  diffused  temperature  of  the  surface  in  an  earlier 
state  of  the  earth,  —  and  the  elevations  and  dislocations 
of  its  crust,  which  have  taken  place,  and  are  still  going 
on,  — -  all  refer  to  such  an  origin,  and  to  such  a  consti- 
tution of  our  planet,  as  that  contemplated  by  the  nebu- 
lar theory.  We  shall  hereafter  give  a  more  particular 
view  of  the  changes  which  have  been  effected  in  the 
earth's  surface  by  the  influence  of  those  two  great 
agents,  fire  and  water,  and  which  seem  destined  to  aid 
in  carrying  out  that  great  law  of  the  universe,  which 
requires  every  particle  of  matter  within  the  remotest 
bounds  of  space,  to  cooperate  actively  in  fulfilling  the 
purposes  of  the  Almighty. 


PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EARTH.      31 


PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE 
EARTH. 


The  Earth  as  viewed  from  the  Moon: 

THE  globe  we  inhabit  may  be  described  as  a  plane- 
tary orb  of  about  twenty-four  thousand  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, and  of  a  spheroidal  shape ;  its  figure 
being  such  as  a  body  in  a  fluid  state,  and  made  to 
rotate  on  its  axis,  would  assume.  Its  mean  density  is 
five  times  greater  than  that  of  water,  the  interior  being 
double  that  of  the  solid  superficial  crust ;  the  internal 
part  of  the  earth,  if  cavernous,  as  is  supposed  by 
some,  must  therefore  be  composed  of  very  dense  ma- 
terials. Its  surface  is  computed  to  contain  one  hun- 
dred and  ninety  millions  of  square  miles,  of  which 
three  fifths  are  covered  by  seas,  and  another  large 
proportion  by  vast  bodies  of  fresh  water,  by  polar  ice 


32  WONDERS    OF    GEOLOGY. 

and  eternal  snows ;  so  that,  taking  into  consideration 
sterile  tracts,  morasses,  &c.,  scarcely  more  than  one 
fifth  of  the  surface  of  the  globe  is  fit  for  the  habitation 
of  man  and  terrestrial  animals.  The  area  of  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean  alone  is  estimated  to  be  equal  to  the  entire 
surface  of  the  dry  land.  The  distribution  of  the  land 
is  exceedingly  irregular,  the  greater  proportion  being 
situated  in  the  northern  hemisphere ;  as  a  reference  to 
a  terrestrial  globe,  or  a  map  of  the  world,  will  clearly 
demonstrate. 

In  a  geological  point  of  view,  dry  land  may  be  con- 
sidered as  so  much  of  the  crust  of  the  earth  as  is  now 
above  the  level  of  the  water,  beneath  which  it  may 
again  disappear.  From  accurate  calculations,  it  is 
proved  that  the  present  land  might  be  distributed  over 
the  bed  of  the  ocean,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  surface 
of  the  globe  would  present  an  uninterrupted  sheet  of 
water.  Thus  we  perceive  that  every  imaginable  dis- 
tribution of  land  and  water  may  take  place  ;  and,  con- 
sequently, that  every  variety  of  organic  life  may  find  at 
different  periods  suitable  abodes. 

The  investigation  of  the  laws  which  govern  the 
geographical  distribution  of  animals  and  vegetables  is 
highly  interesting ;  but  it  will  be  sufficient  for  our 
present  purpose  to  state,  that,  although  it  might  have 
been  expected,  that,  all  other  circumstances  being 
equal,  the  same  animals  and  plants  would  be  found 
in  places  of  like  climate  and  temperature,  this  identity 
of  distribution  does  not  exist.  When  America  was 
first  discovered,  the  indigenous  quadrupeds  were  all 
dissimilar  to  those  of  the  old  world.  The  elephant, 
rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  giraffe,  camel,  horse,  ox, 


PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EARTH.      33 

lion,  tiger,  &c.,  were  not  met  on  the  new  conti- 
nent ;  while  the  American  species  of  mammalia,  as  the 
llama,  jaguar,  paca,  coati,  sloth,  &c.,  were  unknown 
in  the  old.  New  Holland  contains,  as  is  well  known, 
a  most  singular  assemblage  of  mammalia,  consisting 
of  more  than  forty  species  of  marsupial  animals,  of 
which  the  kangaroo  is  a  familiar  example.  The 
islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  possess  no  indigenous 
quadrupeds,  except  hogs,  dogs,  rats,  and  a  few  bats. 

The  distribution  of  vegetable  life,  although  perhaps 
more  arbitrarily  fixed  by  temperature  and  by  local  in- 
fluences than  that  of  animals,  presents  many  anoma- 
lies. From  numerous  observations,  however,  it  ap- 
pears that  vegetable  creation  took  place  in  different 
centres,  each  having  been  the  focus  of  a  peculiar 
genus  or  species ;  for  many  plants  have  a  local  ex- 
istence, and  vegetate  naturally  in  one  district  alone : 
thus,  the  cedar  of  Lebanon  is  indigenous  on  that  moun- 
tain, and  does  not  grow  spontaneously  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world.  It  is  also  ascertained  that  certain 
great  divisions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  are  distribut- 
ed over  certain  regions. 

The  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  globe  de- 
pends on  the  action  of  solar  light  and  heat ;  hence  the 
difference  of  the  seasons  and  climates  of  various  lati- 
tudes. But  there  are  many  causes  which  modify  the 
distribution  of  the  sun's  influence,  and  produce  great 
local  variations;  under  equal  circumstances,  however, 
the  temperature  is  found  progressively  to  diminish 
from  the  equator  to  the  poles.  There  is  also  an  in- 
ternal source  of  heat,  the  cause  of  which  has  not  yet 
been  determined,  but  it  is  probably  connected  with 
3 


34  WONDERS     OF    GEOLOGY. 

the  original  constitution  of  our  planet.  It  has  been 
ascertained,  by  careful  experiments,  that,  below  the 
depth  to  which  the  solar  heat  can  penetrate,  there  is 
an  invariable  increase  of  temperature,  amounting  to 
.1°  of  Fahrenheit  for  every  fifteen  yards :  so  that  it  is 
possible,  that,  at  the  depth  of  one  hundred  miles  be- 
neath the  surface  of  the  earth,  even  the  least  fusible 
mineral  masses  may  be  in  a  state  of  incandescence. 


DEFINITIONS  OF   GEOLOGY. 

VARIOUS  definitions  of  this  science  have  been  given 
by  different  writers.  By  one  it  is  termed  the  Physical 
History  of  the  Earth  ;  and  in  this  view  comprehends 
the  investigation  of  its  structure,  and  the  character  and 
causes  of  the  various  changes  which  have  taken  place 
in  the  organic  and  inorganic  kingdoms  of  Nature.  By 
another  it  is  defined  as  an  Inquiry  into  Universal  Na- 
ture, extending  throughout  all  her  kingdoms,  animal, 
vegetable,  and  mineral ;  and  comprising  in  its  investi- 
gations all  time  past,  present,  and  to  come. 

These  can  hardly  be  viewed  in  the  light  of  precise 
or  scientific  definitions.  The  following  are  better  en- 
titled to  this  character.  Geology,  according  to  Pro- 
fessor Hitchcock,  is  the  history  of  the  mineral  masses 
that  compose  the  earth,  and  of  the  organic  remains 
which  they  contain.  Professor  Whewell  has  proposed 
to  divide  it  into,  1.  Descriptive  or  Phenomenal  Geology, 
which  embraces  the  facts ;  2.  Geological  Dynamics, 


DEFINITIONS    OF    GEOLOGY.  35 

which  gives  an  exposition  of  the  general  principles  by 
which  such  phenomena  can  be  produced  ;  3.  Physical 
Geology,  which  states  the  doctrines  as  to  what  have 
been  the  causes  of  the  existing  condition  of  things. 

Other  writers  divide  geology  into  but  two  branches : 
1.  Geognosy,  or  Positive  Geology,  which  embraces 
only  the  known  facts  of  the  science  ;  2.  Geogony,  or 
Speculative  Geology,  which  attempts  to  point  out  the 
causes  of  those  facts,  and  the  inferences  that  result 
from  them.  The  following  is  likewise  offered  as  a  di- 
vision of  the  subject,  of  practical  use  :  1.  Economical 
Geology,  or  an  account  of  rocks  with  reference  to 
their  pecuniary  value,  or  immediate  application  to  the 
wants  of  society ;  2.  Sceno graphical  Geology,  or  an 
account  of  rocks  as  they  exhibit  themselves  to  the  eye 
in  their  general  outlines  ;  in  other  words,  an  account 
of  natural  scenery;  3.  Scientific  Geology,  or  the  his- 
tory of  the  rocks  in  their  relation  to  science  or  philos- 
ophy. 

This  science  is  not  so  particularly  concerned  with 
the  whole  mass  of  our  globe  as  with  its  upper  crust. 
The  rind  or  covering,  in  which  lies  its  peculiar  domain, 
is  but  a  small  part  of  the  whole.  Its  thickness  is  esti- 
mated most  frequently  at  about  ten  miles,  — which  is 
only  one  eight  hundredth  part  of  the  whole  diameter 
of  the  globe.  It  is  like  the  peel  of  an  orange  to  the 
whole  orange,  or  rather  as  the  thickness  of  paper  to  a 
globe  a  foot  in  diameter ;.  and  the  greatest  inequalities 
of  its  surface,  its  mountains  of  five  miles  in  height, 
resemble  but  the  mere  roughnesses  seen  on  the  rind 
of  the  fruit ;  and  the  vast  oceans  which  cover  our  globe 
would  be  shown  in  their  true  proportion  by  a  film  of 


36  WONDERS    OF    GEOLOGY. 

liquid,  such  as  would  be  left  on  the  model  globe  of  a 
school-room  by  a  brush  dipped  in  color  and  drawn 
over  those  parts  intended  to  represent  the  sea. 

The  earth  has  never  been  penetrated  deeper  in 
mines  than  about  half  a  mile ;  so  that  its  internal 
structure  has  been  the  subject  of  conjecture  only. 
The  probability  of  correct  conclusions,  however,  is 
strong,  as  will  appear  from  numerous  facts  which  will 
be  stated  in  the  course  of  the  following  pages. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  ROCKS. 

THE  rocks  of  which  the  globe  is  composed  are  di- 
vided into  two  great  classes,  the  Stratified  and  the  Un- 
stratified.  The  latter  are  of  igneous  origin,  and  consist 
of  various  rocks,  including  granite,  lava,  basalt,  trap- 
rocks,  &c.  We  find  them  at  various  depths,  and  in 
every  variety  of  position;  sometimes  at  the  very 
surface,  and  again  at  great  depths.  They  are  fre- 
quently found  breaking  through  the  stratified  rocks, 
lifting  their  peaks  into  the  form  of  lofty  mountains. 
The  stratified  rocks  are  disposed  in  beds  and  layers, 
and  are  of  aqueous  origin.  These  abound  with  the 
fossil  remains  of  animals  and  vegetables. 

STRATIFIED  ROCKS.  By  the  strata  of  the  globe  is 
meant  the  whole  mass  of  a  rock,  while  the  subdivis- 
ions formed  on  the  same  plane  with  it  are  termed  beds 
or  layers.  Stratification,  therefore,  is  the  division  of  a 
rock  into  regular  parallel  masses,  varying  in  thickness. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    ROCKS.  37 

In  general,  the  division  is  by  nearly  parallel  planes; 
but  sometimes  the  masses  are  tortuous  or  wedge- 
shaped. 

When  the  beds  of  different  rocks  are  found  in  alter- 
nate succession,  they  are  then  said  to  be  interstratified. 
Lamina  are  thin  plates,  which  are  to  a  single  bed  what 
such  a  bed  is  to  a  series  of  beds  in  rocks.  There  is  a 
great  variety  of  these  lamina?  or  plates  ;  sometimes 
coarse  or  fine,  parallel,  waved,  oblique,  or  contorted. 

Strata  and  laminae  both  exhibit  proofs  of  the  action 
of  water.  The  waved  laminae  are  said  to  be  nothing 
but  ripple  marks ;  while  a  quiet  deposit  leaves  paral- 
lel laminse,  and  a  deposition  where  the  materials  in 
formation  are  driven  over  the  edge  of  an  inclined 
plane  is  an  oblique  one.  Contorted  laminae  are  proved 
to  have  resulted  from  lateral  pressure  beneath  su- 
perincumbent weight,  by  the  following  very  simple 
experiment.  Take  a  number  of  thicknesses  of  cloth 
and  lay  them  on  each  other ;  then  place  on  them  a 
board  held  down  by  a  weight ;  then  place  two  boards, 
one  on  each  side,  and  let  them  press  hard  upon  the 
edges  of  the  cloth,  and  it  will  assume  the  bent  and 
waving  form  of  the  rocks  to  which  we  allude. 

In  the  early  stages  of  geological  science,  stratified 
rocks  were  divided  into  three  groups,  or  classes,  called 
primitive,  transition,  and  secondary,  to  which  was 
afterwards  added  a  fourth,  called  the  tertiary.  This 
division  has  given  place  to  others,  considered  to  be 
more  accordant  with  the  numerous  facts  brought  to 
light.  Still,  as  the  names  have  been  retained,  it  may 
be  useful  to  advert  briefly  to  the  several  meanings 
of  the  terms. 


38 


WONDERS     OF    GEOLOGY. 


Vegetable  Soil. 

Beds  of  Gravel  and     ^>~ 

SfflTlrf.  ^ 


X* 


«A 


f  Millstone. 
g    !  Sandstones. 

s-l  I 

•£  §  <!  Gy^im. 


Coarse  Limestone. 
Plastic  Clay. 


CAatt-  Bed*. 

Oolitic  Group  and 
Lias. 

Shell  Limestone. 

Magnesian  Lime- 
stone. 

New  Red  Sandstone. 

Coal  Beds,  mixed  with 
Sandstone,  %,-c. 


*t 


I 


Mountain  Limestone.   <^ 
Old  Red  Sandstone.      ^ 


Grauwacke. 
Sandy  Slate. 


Inferior  Stratified  J_ 

Rocks :  Mica  Slate,      C~ 
Gneiss,  fyc.  C 

Unstratified  Rocks :  / 
Granite.  ./ 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    ROCKS.  39 

The  primitive,  or,  as  now  called,  primary  rocks,  are 
such  as  gneiss,  quartz,  hornblende,  &c.,  consisting  of  a 
crystalline  structure,  and  have  evidently  been  produced 
by  the  action  of  fire.  They  are  the  lowest  of  all,  and 
form  the  foundation  on  which  the  other  and  later  strata 
have  been  deposited.  They  were  called  primitive,  be- 
cause, as  they  contained  no  organic  remains,  it  was 
inferred  that  they  had  been  formed  before  the  creation 
of  vegetables  or  animals  ;  but  it  is  said  to  have  been 
ascertained,  that  granite  and  the  rocks  found  with  it  are 
of  various  ages,  and  that  they  are  sedimentary  depos- 
its, altered  by  exposure  to  a  high  temperature. 

The  transition  strata  rest  on  the  primitive,  are 
more  or  less  stratified,  presenting  especially  alterna- 
tions of  slate  and  shale  with  slaty  limestone  and  con- 
glomerate rocks,  and  contain  remains  of  fishes,  shells, 
and  vegetables.  They  were  called  transition,  because 
they  were  supposed  to  have  been  formed  when  the 
surface  of  the  earth  and  seas  was  in  a  transition 
state,  or  passing  into  a  state  fitted  to  receive  organized 
beings.  This  theory,  however,  has  been  modified,  as 
they  have  been  shown  to  be  like  primary  rock  strata, 
modified  by  the  effects  of  heat,  under  great  pressure. 
The  coal  formations  belong  to  this  class. 

The  secondary,  including  the  lias  and  oolite  forma- 
tions, various  limestones,  sandstones,  conglomerates, 
&c.,  containing  more  organic  remains  than  the  transi- 
tion, are  said  to  have  clearly  originated  from  the 
destruction  of  the  more  ancient  rocks,  and  to  have 
been  deposited  by  the  action  of  rivers  and  seas  in  the 
hollows  or  depressions.  Most  of  them  exhibit  zo- 
ophytes and  shells ;  the  rest,  vegetable  remains  and 


40  WONDERS     OF    GEOLOGY. 

fishes  ;  then,  not  only  fishes,  shells,  zoophytes,  and 
plants,  but  insects,  and  bones  of  enormous  reptiles, 
birds,  and  one  or  more  genera  of  the  marsupial  or 
opossum-like  animals.  The  chalk  is  the  uppermost 
or  most  recent  of  this  formation.  Originally  the  depo- 
sitions were  in  horizontal  layers,  or  nearly  so ;  but 
they  have,  in  a  great  degree,  been  broken  up,  and  lie 
more  or  less  inclined  to  the  horizon. 

The  tertiary  are  such  as  consist  chiefly  of  alternate 
strata  of  marine  and  fresh-water  deposits,  and  contain 
abundant  remains  of  plants  and  animals  more  nearly 
resembling  the  species  which  are  now  found  inhabiting 
our  globe.  They  lie  in  hollows  or  basins  of  chalk  and 
other  secondary  rocks,  and  are  formed  of  the  ruins  or 
detritions  of  more  ancient  beds  of  rocks.  Still  later 
than  these  last  are  the  alluvial  deposits,  which  com- 
prise the  vast  quantities  of  materials  worn  by  water 
and  spread  over  almost  every  country,  containing  re- 
mains of  existing  races  of  animals  and  plants,  together 
with  those  not  now  found  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 
By  some  geologists,  the  more  ancient  of  these  have 
been  called  diluvial,  and  the  more  modern  alluvial. 

The  igneous  and  primary  rocks  in  our  country  con- 
stitute mainly  the  hills  of  New  England,  and  the 
mountain  group  in  the  northern  part  of  New  York  ; 
also  the  Blue  Ridge  and  its  collateral  elevations,  ex- 
tending southwest  through  the  Atlantic  States.  The 
transition  and  secondary  rocks,  especially  the  former, 
constitute  the  greater  portion  of  the  interior  of  the 
United  States  west  of  New  England.  The  tertiary 
deposits  constitute  a  large  portion  of  the  shores  and 
low  country  of  the  States  south  of  New  England  and 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   ROCKS.  41 

bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  alluvial  de- 
posits are  found  in  the  Western  States. 

To  form  a  clear  idea  of  the  arrangement  of  rocks  on 
the  earth's  surface,  it  has  been  said,  that,  if  we  were  to 
place  ourselves  in  a  meadow  which  has  resulted  from 
successive  deposits  of  annual  floods,  and  begin  a  per- 
pendicular excavation  into  the  earth,  we  should  pass 
through  the  different  classes  of  rocks  in  the  following 
order  :  — 

For  a  few  feet  only,  —  rarely  as  many  as  one  hun- 
dred,—  we  shall  pass  through  layers  of  loam,  sand, 
and  fine  gravel,  arranged  in  nearly  horizontal  beds. 
This  deposit,  being  from  an  existing  river,  is  denomi- 
nated alluvium.  All  deposits  from  causes  now  in  action 
are  generally  regarded  as  alluvial. 

The  second  formation  which  we  shall  penetrate  is 
composed  of  coarse  sand  and  gravel,  with  fine  sand 
and  sometimes  even  clay,  containing,  however,  large 
rounded  masses  of  rocks  called  boulders ;  the  whole 
mixed  together,  yet  distinctly  and  horizontally  stratified. 
This  formation  —  evidently  the  result  of  the  agency 
of  ice  and  water — is  that  which  we  have  called  drift. 
It  is  distinguished  from  alluvium  by  its  lying  below 
it ;  by  the  marks  it  exhibits  of  more  powerful  agen- 
cy ;  and  by  extending  over  regions  where  no  existing 
streams,  or  other  causes  now  in  action,  could  have 
produced  it. 

The  third  series  of  strata  is  composed  of  layers  of 
clay,  sand,  gravel,  and  marl,  with  occasional  quartzose 
and  calcareous  beds,  more  or  less  consolidated,  all 
deposited  in  comparatively  quiet  waters  and  separate 
basins.  They  are  usually  horizontal,  though  they 


4^  WONDERS     OF    GEOLOGY. 

sometimes  dip  at  a  small  angle.  These  are  the  ter- 
tiary formation. 

After  passing  the  tertiary,  we  come  to  solid  rock 
formations,  made  up,  however,  of  sand,  clay,  and 
pebbles,  bound  together  with  some  kind  of  cement. 
Among  these  are  mingled,  in  strata,  many  varieties  of 
limestone.  They  sometimes  lie  horizontally,  but  gen- 
erally dip  at  greater  or  less  angles.  These  are  the  sec- 
ondary formation. 

Below  the  secondary  lie  the  primary ;  which  Mr. 
Lyell  proposes  rather  to  call  the  primary  hypogenes, 
that  is,  nether-formed  rocks,  or  rocks  which  have 
not  assumed  their  present  form  and  structure  at  the 
surface. 

Below  the  primary  stratified  rocks  are  found  the 
unstratified  ones ;  and  hence  it  is  inferred,  that  the  in- 
ternal parts  of  the  globe,  beneath  its  comparatively  thin 
crust,  are  composed  of  such  rocks,  at  least  to  a  great 
depth.  Most  frequently,  gneiss  lies  above  granite  in 
the  primary  rocks.  Among  the  rocks  which  contain 
it,  it  is  found  that  there  exists  an  invariable  order  of 
position.  The  new  rocks  are  occasionally  found  be- 
neath the  older  ones,  in  consequence  of  having  been 
thrown  out  of  their  place  ;  they  sometimes,  however, 
after  having  descended  in  this  order  for  one  thousand 
feet  or  more,  again  bend  round  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
be  restored  to  their  proper  position.  Sometimes,  by 
the  deficiency  of  some  of  the  secondary  rocks,  those 
of  different  ages  are  brought  into  juxtaposition.  This, 
however,  does  not  disturb  the  preceding  order  of  ar- 
rangement. 

Although,  as  we  have  said,  this  division  of  the  strati- 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   ROCKS.  43 

fied  rocks  is  the  most  common,  others  have  been  pro- 
posed by  different  writers.  De  la  Beche  divides  the 
stratified  rocks  into  ten  groups,  —  named  for  the  most 
part  after  the  prevailing  characteristics;  Dr.  Cony- 
beare, into  five  orders. 

Mr.  Lyell  proposes  the  appellation  of  periods  and 
groups.  The  first  he  calls  the  Post  Pliocene  Period, 
which  includes  alluvium  and  drift.  The  second,  the 
Tertiary  Period,  which  is  subdivided  again  into  the 
Newer  and  Older  Pliocene,  Miocene,  and  Eocene. 
The  third  he  calls  Secondary,  which  extends  to  the 
bottom  of  the  old  sandstone.  The  next  is  the  Prima- 
ry Fossiliferous  Period,  which  includes  all  the  re- 
maining fossiliferous  rocks.  The  Metamorphic  Rocks 
include  all  the  stratified  groups  which  do  not  contain 
fossils.  Various  other  arrangements  have  been  made, 
which  may  be  readily  compared  by  consulting  the 
table  in  Professor  Hitchcock's  "Elementary  Geol- 
ogy >"  Page  42- 

UNSTRATIFIED  ROCKS.  The  unstratified  rocks  have 
also  been  variously  classified.  They  are  found  associ- 
ated with  strata  of  all  characters  and  all  ages.  Some- 
times, as  already  stated,  they  appear  at  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  and  at  other  times  are  found  only  at  great 
depths.  Their  relative  antiquity,  compared  with  other 
rocks  lying  near,  may  often  be  ascertained.  If  we  find, 
for  instance,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  a  mass  of  gran- 
ite breaking  through  a  stratum  and  branching  out  into 
veins,  we  conclude  that  granite  is  the  more  recent  of 
the  two,  as  well  as  that  it  owes  its  position  to  the  action 
of  fire. 

The  same  inferences  may  be  drawn  from  the  fact, 


44  WONDERS     OF    GEOLOGY. 

that,  where  slate  rocks  are  intersected  by  granite  veins, 
they  have  a  peculiar  appearance,  like  mica  slate  or 
hornblende ;  and  that  beds  of  shale,  under  the  same 
circumstances,  are  reduced  to  jasper,  and  compact 
limestone  and  chalk  are  converted  into  crystalline 
marbles. 

In  general,  it  may  be  stated,  that  the  unstratified 
rocks  lie  beneath  the  stratified,  and  form  the  bed  upon 
which  they  rest.  They  are  supposed  to  form  the  es- 
sential composition  of  the  globe,  perhaps  to  its  centre, 
if  it  be  not  hollow.  The  total  thickness  of  all  the 
stratified  rocks  in  Europe  is  estimated  by  Dr.  Buck- 
land  to  be  only  about  ten  miles. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that,  while  all  the  un- 
stratified rocks  are  supposed  to  be  of  igneous  origin, 
fire  is  supposed  to  be  also  an  element  in  the  formation 
of  the  primary  stratified  rocks.  These  have  been  sub- 
jected to  numerous  disturbances,  and  often  a  stupen- 
dous force  has  been  exerted  in  giving  them  their  pres- 
ent position.  At  Westfield  and  Pittsfield,  in  Massa- 
chusetts, there  are  primary  stratified  rocks  coming  up 
to  the  surface  in  nearly  perpendicular  positions,  show- 
ing the  layers  to  be  twenty  miles  in  thickness.  This, 
and  other  facts,  enable  us  to  judge  of  the  materials 
which  lie  below  the  superficial  crust  of  the  globe,  at 
least  to  a  considerable  extent. 


CHANGES  OF  THE  EARTH'S   SURFACE. 


THE  earth,  in  its  physical  structure,  has  undergone 
great  changes  ;  and  the  distribution  of  land  and  water, 
also,  has  been  subject  to  similar  mutations.  We  have 
already  noticed  the  two  great  theories  which  have  been 
propounded  to  account  for  the  appearance  of  the  rocks 
found  on  our  globe,  —  one  denominated  the  Neptunian, 
so  named  from  the  supposed  general  action  of  water, 
—  and  the  other,  the  Plutonian  or  Vulcanian,  from 
the  supposed  action  of  fire.  They  are  also  termed  the 
Wernerian  and  Huttonian,  after  Werner  and  Hutton, 
the  authors  of  the  two  systems.  Both  of  them  have 
found  their  advocates,  and  warm  contests  have  been 
carried  on  between  the  respective  parties. 

The  question  concerning  the  various  changes  ob- 
servable on  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  an  interesting 
one,  particularly  on  account  of  its  relation  to  the 
Scriptures.  It  will  be  more  convenient,  however,  to 
reserve  a  discussion  of  this  subject  for  a  later  stage  of 
our  work.  It  is  enough  to  remark  here,  that,  while 
the  discoveries  of  geology  were  at  first  hailed  by  infi- 
dels as  giving  the  lie  to  the  Mosaic  account  of  crea- 
tion, later  investigations  have  shown  conclusively,  that 
geology,  so  far  from  being  adverse  to,  is  in  perfect 
harmony  with,  the  Scriptural  account  of  the  formation 
of  all  things. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOLOGY. 


OUR  principal  object  in  this  volume  is  to  exhibit  what 
may  be  called  the  Wonders  of  geology ;  and,  as  our 
space  will  not  allow  an  extended  account  of  its  sci- 
entific relations  to  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  other 
branches  of  knowledge,  we  shall  not  confine  ourselves 
to  the  order  which  might,  with  such  a  reference,  be 
properly  adopted.  The  arrangement  of  Professor 
Hitchcock  will  be  the  guide  we  shall  principally  follow ; 
according  to  which,  the  stratified  rocks  first  demand 
our  attention. 


STRATIFIED  ROCKS. 

ALLUVIUM. 

IN  geology,  every  part  of  the  masses  of  the  globe, 
which  is  not  either  animal  or  vegetable,  —  including 
even  air  and  water,  —  is  regarded  as  belonging  to  the 
mineral  kingdom.  The  whole  solid  mass  of  the  earth 
—  containing  the  loose  soils,  clay,  sand,  and  gravel  — 
is  embraced  under  the  general  title  of  rocks. 

Alluvium  includes  the  most  recent  formations,  chiefly 
occasioned  by  the  action  of  air,  water,  solar  heat,  &c., 


ALLTTVITTM.  47 

and  by  processes  of  nature  now  in  visible  operation. 
Among  the  prominent  objects  of  this  class  are  soil, 
sand,  peat,  marl,  calcareous  tufa,  coral  reefs,  rock  salt, 
bitumen,  sulphate  of  lime,  sandstones,  conglomerates, 
breccias,  &c. 

Omitting  the  descriptions  of  soils,  sand  beds,  &c., 
we  may  notice,  as  among  the  most  curious  objects  of 
nature,  the  calcareous  tufa,  sinter,  travestin ;  or,  in 
more  common  language,  new  limestone.  The  process 
of  its  formation  is  as  follows.  In  consequenca  of  the 
greater  or  less  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  which  certain 
springs  contain,  their  waters  dissolve,  in  some  degree, 
the  beds  of  limestone  over  which  they  flow,  or  through 
which  they  penetrate.  When  they  come  in  contact 
with  the  atmosphere,  a  portion  of  the  acid  escapes  in 
the  form  of  gas,  and  the  lime,  held  in  solution  in  the 
water,  is  precipitated,  and  hardens.  The  experience 
of  every  day  presents  to  our  view  phenomena  of  this 
kind.  The  water  of  many  springs  and  wells,  by  evap- 
oration in  vessels,  gradually  forms  a  calcareous  precip- 
itate, which  finally  hardens  into  a  solid  crust. 

These  new  lime-formations  are,  in  many  respects, 
interesting  and  important.  The  long,  uninterrupted 
continuance  of  their  formation ;  the  immense  size  of 
the  masses,  which  are  formed  in  the  course  of  time ; 
the  frequency  of  their  occurrence,  in  comparison  with 
other  new  formations  ;  and  the  value  of  the  material  for 
the  purpose  of  building,  impart  to  them  a  peculiar  im- 
portance. The  loose,  porous  masses,  which  are  formed 
in  this  way,  are  called  calcareous  tufa;  the  more  solid 
and  compact  are  designated  travestin.  The  pride  of 
ancient  as  well  as  of  modern  Rome,  the  Coliseum 


48  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

and  St.  Peter's  church,  are  built  of  this ;  the  most  an- 
cient masterpieces  of  Grecian  architecture,  the  cele- 
brated temples  of  Psestum,  are  also  constructed  of  the 
same  material. 

What  renders  travestin  peculiarly  valuable  in  archi- 
tecture is  the  fact,  that  it  acquires  great  solidity  by  the 
influence  of  the  atmosphere  ;  it  becomes  hard,  almost 
indestructible,  and  frequently  endures  longer  than  mar- 
ble. Buildings  of  travestin  stand  many  centuries.  In 
the  course  of  time,  it  assumes  a  reddish  color,  and  this 
property  has  contributed  to  impart  to  the  ruins  of  Ro- 
man glory  that  venerable  and  gloomy  aspect  which 
they  possess.  Many  natural  structures  of  calcareous 
tufa  are  very  solid  and  endure  a  long  time.  Thus,  the 
calcareous  deposits  of  springs  formed  an  arch  over  a 
chasm  near  the  town  of  Clermont  in  Auvergne,  about 
the  middle  of  the  last  century  ;  it  was  a  kind  of  bridge, 
of  two  hundred  feet  in  length,  and  in  the  middle  of  the 
arch  it  was  two  feet  thick.  Loaded  wagons  could 
pass  over  it  with  safety. 

Tlie  immense  masses  of  travestin  and  calcareous 
tufa  of  Italy  are  indebted  for  their  existence  to  the 
springs  of  the  Apennines.  The  waters  wash  away 
portions  of  the  limestone  rocks,  dissolve  them,  and  de- 
posit the  solution  at  the  base  of  the  mountain. 

What  has  been  said  of  springs  is  also  applicable  to 
lakes.  In  times  when  natural  history  did  not  enjoy  the 
important  aid  of  chemistry,  waters  producing  calcare- 
ous incrustations  were  termed  petrifying ;  the  common 
people  regarded  them  as  wonders.  Ancient  authors 
mention  the  fact,  that  the  water  of  the  Silarus  in- 
crusted  the  leaves  of  the  trees  which  fell  into  it.  .  This 


river,  the  Sele  of  the  present  day,  flows  near  Psestum, 
a  region  of  country  very  interesting  in  phenomena 
like  those  we  are  now  considering. 

South  of  Naples,  on  the  shores  of  the  wide  bay, 
surrounded  by  romantic  hills,  in  the  midst  of  a  beauti- 
ful, fertile  valley,  are  seen  the  ruins  of  ancient  Pses- 
tum. Remains  of  walls,  constructed  of  solid  blocks 
of  limestone,  are  still  found  ;  but  the  city  which  they 
once  inclosed  has  long  been  utterly  destroyed.  Even 
Roman  poets  sung  of  the  beauty  of  the  roses  which 
bloomed  on  the  site  of  Psestum ;  yet  the  place  is  now 
overgrown  with  grass  and  bushes.  The  immense  ruins 
of  three  temples  stand  as  monuments  of  its  former 
glory ;  they  are  those  extraordinary  works  of  ancient 
architecture  which  have  been  just  mentioned,  as  being 
constructed  of  travestin.  A  lake  in  the  immediate  vi- 
cinity of  Psestum  furnished  the  material.  A  spacious 
grotto,  and  other  deep  excavations,  are  still  shown, 
which  were  formed  in  ancient  times  by  breaking  off 
immense  masses  of  stone.  It  is  evidently  the  same 
kind  of  stone  of  which  the  temples  are  built.  A 
stream,  which  flows  by  the  ruins,  is  constantly  deposit- 
ing tufa  in  such  quantities,  that  the  old  walls  have 
considerable  masses  of  it  adhering  to  them.  A  staff", 
immersed  in  the  water,  is  incrusted  with  lime  in  the 
course  of  a  few  hours ;  moss,  and  stalks  of  grass,  per- 
fectly covered  with  the  crust,  retain  their  green  color 
almost  unaltered ;  so  sudden  is  the  precipitate  of  earth- 
ly particles.  Plants  growing  on  the  banks  are  colored 
gray  by  the  calcareous  crust.  Other  waters,  possessing 
this  property,  exhibit  the  remarkable  phenomenon,  that 
plants  growing  in  them  have  the  parts  which  are  im- 
4 


50  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

mersed  incrusted  with  the  same  material.  It  hence  ap- 
pears that  their  internal  delicate  texture  is  not  injured 
by  this  process. 

The  fable  of  the  "  floating  islands  "  had  its  origin 
from  the  lake  at  Paestum.  It  was  supposed  to  be  un- 
fathomable ;  the  bubbles  on  its  surface,  the  conse- 
quence of  the  escape  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  were  re- 
garded as  the  ebullitions  of  boiling  water,  and  thus  it 
was  believed  that  the  sea  boiled  in  the  lowest  depths, 
and  forced  up  islands.  The  phenomenon  is  easily  ex- 
plained. Reeds,  rushes,  and  other  aquatic  plants  on 
the  shore,  are  covered  with  calcareous  tufa.  In  the 
winter,  large  masses  of  these  vegetables  are  torn 
loose,  by  the  violence  of  the  waves,  and  carried  to  the 
stream,  which  flows  out  of  the  lake.  These  can  with 
no  greater  propriety  be  regarded  as  floating  islands, 
than  the  immense  fragments  of  calcareous  deposits, 
now  forming  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie,  in  North 
America,  which,  in  cold  weather,  are  attached  to 
blocks  of  ice  and  float  on  the  surface  of  that  inland 
sea. 

Among  the  most  celebrated  petrifying  waters  are 
those  of  Carlsbad,  in  Germany.  Here  almost  every 
kind  of  natural  productions,  flowers,  ears  of  grain, 
fruits,  leaves,  shells,  dead  crabs,  and  works  of  art,  of 
various  kinds,  are  covered  with  sinter,  in  the  short 
space  of  eight  days ;  that  is,  with  a  thin,  calcareous 
crust,  colored  more  or  less  brown,  with  the  oxyde  of 
iron.  The  thickness  of  the  coating  depends  on  the 
time  during  which  the  article  is  exposed  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  water ;  in  the  course  of  a  few  months, 
the  coating  becomes  half  an  inch,  or  more,  thick.  But 


ALLTTVITJM.  51 

the  beds  of  calcareous  sinter,  which  are  formed  by 
the  fountain,  where  the  waters  gradually  deposit  their 
lime,  are  of  far  greater  interest  to  us.  Thick  beds 
of  sinter  are  produced  by  degrees,  divided  into  their 
parallel  strata.  The  process  by  which  one  stratum 
was  formed  must  have  been  interrupted  before  a  new 
one  could  have  been  deposited ;  for  the  cohesion  of 
two  strata,  although  strong,  is  far  less  so  than  that 
of  the  parts  constituting  each  separate  layer.  When 
struck,  the  different  parts  fall  asunder  like  shale. 
Facts  similar  to  this  will  be  considered,  when  we 
come  to  speak  of  the  formation  of  strata. 

The  incrustations  of  Carlsbad  have  great  celebrity. 
Not  only  are  they  found  in  all  the  cabinets  of  Europe, 
but  they  adorn  collections  in  North  and  South  Ameri- 
ca. They  take  a  very  fine  polish,  and  are  manufac- 
tured into  the  most  elegant  ornaments,  of  the  greatest 
variety.  The  curved,  striped  colors  give  them  a  very 
beautiful  appearance. 

The  beautiful  incrustations  formed  in  caves,  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  world,  are  also  deposits  of  the  carbo- 
nate of  lime,  made  by  springs.  These  are  called  sta- 
lactites, or  stalagmites.  The  former  are  those  which 
hang  like  icicles  from  the  roof;  the  latter  are  those 
which  rise  from  the  floor  upward,  and  are  formed  by 
the  droppings  of  water  from  above.  The  mode  of  their 
production  is  as  follows.  Whenever  water  filters 
through  a  limestone  rock,  it  dissolves  a  portion  of  it, 
and,  on  reaching  any  opening  in  the  cavern,  either  at 
its  sides  or  roof,  forms  a  drop,  the  moisture  of  which 
is  soon  evaporated  by  the  air,  leaving  a  small  circular 
plate  of  calcareous  matter ;  another  drop  succeeds  in 


52  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

the  same  place,  and  adds,  from  the  same  cause,  a  fresh 
coat  of  incrustation.  In  time,  these  successive  addi- 
tions produce  a  long,  irregular,  conical  projection  from 
the  roof,  which  is  continually  increased  by  fresh  ac- 
cessions of  water  loaded  with  calcareous  or  chalky 
matter,  which  it  deposits  on  the  outside  of  the  stalac- 
tite already  formed,  and,  trickling  do.wn,  adds  to  its 
length  by  subsiding  to  the  point,  and  being  dried  up 
as  before.  The  process  is  precisely  the  same  as  that 
in  the  formation  of  icicles  during  frosty  weather  ;  these 
are  stalactites  of  ice,  or  frozen  water,  and  are  often 
formed  on  the  eaves  of  buildings. 

When  the  supply  of  water  holding  lime  in  solution 
is  too  rapid  to  allow  of  its  evaporation  at  the  bottom  of 
the  stalactite,  it  drops  to  the  floor  of  the  cave,  and, 
drying  up  gradually,  forms  in  like  manner  a  stalactite 
rising  upwards  from  the  ground,  instead  of  hanging 
from  the  roof;  these  are  called,  for  the  sake  of  distinc- 
tion, stalagmites.  Frequently  stalactites  and  stalagmites 
meet,  and  thus  form  pillars,  as  it  were,  supporting 
the  roof  of  the  grotto ;  and  the  forms  assumed  by  their 
concretions,  as  seen  in  caverns,  are  often  most  fantastic 
and  beautiful. 

The  Grotto  of  Antiparos,  in  the  Grecian  Archipela- 
go, discovered  in  the  seventh  century,  has  long  been 
justly  celebrated  on  this  account.  Various  descriptions 
have  been  given  of  it,  from  which  we  compile  the  fol- 
lowing. The  traveller  first  enters  into  a  cavern,  but, 
after  advancing  a  short  distance,  frightful  precipices 
surround  him  on  every  side.  The  only  means  of 
descending  these  steep  rocks  is  by  ropes  and  lad- 
ders which  have  been  placed  across  wide  and  dis- 


ALLUVIUM.  53 

mal  cliffs.  Below,  at  the  depth  of  eighteen  hundred 
feet  from  the  surface,  is  found  a  grotto  three  hundred 
and  sixty  feet  long,  three  hundred  and  forty  feet  wide, 
and  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet  in  height,  gorgeously 
decorated  with  the  most  beautiful  stalactites.  The 


The  Grotto  of  Antiparos. 

roof,  which  is  a  fine  vaulted  arch,  is  hung  all  over  with 
seeming  icicles,  of  a  white  shining  marble,  some  of 
them  ten  feet  long  and  eighteen  inches  thick  at  the 
root ;  among  these  are  disposed  a  thousand  festoons  in 
the  form  of  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  same  substance ; 
but  so  glittering,  when  seen  by  torchlight,  that  no  eye 
can  endure  the  light.  The  sides  of  the  arch  are 
planted  with  seeming  trees  of  the  same  white  marble, 
rising  in  terraces  one  above  another,  and  often  inclos- 


54  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

ing  the  points  of  the  icicles.  From  these  trees  there 
hang  also  festoons,  strung  from  one  to  another,  in  vast 
quantities ;  and  in  some  places  there  seem  to  be  rivers  of 
marble  winding  through  them  in  a  thousand  meanders. 
The  floor  is  rough  and  uneven  with  crystals  of  all 
colors  growing  irregularly  out  of  it, —  red,  blue,  green, 
and  some  of  a  pale  yellow ;  these  are  all  shaped  like 
pieces  of  saltpetre,  but  they  are  so  hard  that  they 
cut  the  shoes.  Among  these,  placed  here  and  there, 
are  icicles  of  the  same  shining  white  marble  as  those 
above,  and  seeming  to  have  fallen  down  from  the  roof 
and  fixed  themselves  there,  except  that  the  larger  end 
is  attached  to  the  floor.  "  To  all  these,"  says  a  travel- 
ler, from  whom  we  are  quoting,  "  our  guides  had  tied 
torches,  two  or  three  to  a  pillar,  and  kept  continually 
beating  them,  to  make  them  beam  brightly.  You  may 
guess  what  a  glare  of  splendor  and  beauty  must  be 
the  effect  of  this  illumination,  among  such  rocks  and 
columns  of  marble.  All  round  the  lower  part  of  the 
sides  of  the  arch  are  a  thousand  masses  of  white  mar- 
ble in  the  shape  of  oak-trees  ;  one  of  these  chambers 
has  a  fair  white  curtain,  whiter  than  satin,  of  the  same 
marble,  stretched  all  over  the  front  of  it.  In  this  we 
cut  our  names,  and  the  date  of  the  year,  as  a  great 
many  people  have  done  before  us." 

Some  most  remarkable  caverns  of  a  similar  descrip- 
tion are  found  in  various  parts  of  our  own  country. 
Among  these  is  Wyer's  Cave,  in  Augusta  county, 
Virginia,  discovered  by  a  Mr.  Wyer,  in  1806,  while 
hunting  in  the  Blue  Mountain  ridge.  The  Mammoth 
Cave,  in  Kentucky,  is  one  of  the  most  stupendous  natural 
curiosities  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  It  is  frequently 


ALLUVIUM.  55 

visited,  and  a  hotel  has  been  built  within  the  mouth  of 
it,  for  the  accommodation  of  strangers.  It  has  had 
twenty  permanent  lodgers  at  a  time,  and  frequently 
entertains  sixty  or  seventy  persons  at  dinner.  A  recent 
traveller  gives  us  the  following  account  of  it. 

"  I  have  just  returned  from  a  visit  to  the  greatest  of 
all  wonders,  —  the  '  Mammoth  Cave,'  —  in  company 
with  the  author  of  the  '  Juvenile  Catherine,'  where  we 
spent  several  days  most  agreeably,  I  can  assure  you. 
Why  is  it  that  this  cave  is  not  more  visited  than  it 
is  ?  Can  it  be  that  people  living  at  a  distance  do  not 
give  credence  to  the  reports  of  its  magnitude  and  ex- 
tent, —  of  its  varied  beauty  and  grandeur  ?  Through  it 
flow  several  rivers,  one  of  them  more  than  thirty  feet 
deep,  containing  a  finny  tribe  of  transparent,  eyeless 
fish !  Surely,  there  are  no  well  informed  persons  at 
this  day  who  are  skeptical  about  the  existence  of  this 
wonderful  cave,  the  greatest  and  most  stupendous  freak 
of  nature  on  the  globe.  Should  there  be  any  such, 
however,  to  them  I  would  say,  '  Minor  est  ipsa  infa- 
mia  veroS  No  description  can  do  it  justice  ;  and  even 
a  sketch  of  every  part  could  not  be  given,  unless  the 
writer  who  attempted  it  were  to  travel  under  ground  a 
much  longer  time  than  most  foreign  tourists  do  over 
America.  There  are  no  less  than  two  hundred  and 
forty-two  branches  or  avenues  in  the  cave,  now  ex- 
plored, varying  from  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  nine  miles 
in  length ;  and  new  ones  are  discovered  almost  every 
day. 

"  The  proprietor,  Dr.  Croghan,  of  Louisville,  has 
built  a  comfortable  hotel  at  the  place,  and  employed  an 
accommodating  landlord,  whose  table  is  loaded  with 


56  STRATIFIED   ROCKS. 

every  luxury  an  epicure  could  desire ;  his  wines,  too, 
are  of  the  best  quality.  Careful  guides  are  in  readi- 
ness, at  any  and  every  hour  of  the  day,  to  accompany 
visiters  into  the  cave. 

"I  have  collected  some  small  but  beautiful  speci- 
mens of  the  formations  in  the  interior  of  the  cave  for 
'  York's  Tall  Son,'  which  I  intended  to  have  sent  on 
by  one  of  our  merchants,  who  unfortunately  set  out  for 
the  East  before  my  return  home.  I  also  procured  one 
of  the  Pisces  Bartimei,  or  blind  fish,  which  I  have 
preserved  in  alcohol,  and  intend  as  a  rival  of  the  Texas 
'  horned  frog.' 

"  I  cannot  refrain  from  giving  you  an  account  of  an 
incident  that  happened  in  this  cave  last  spring.  A  wed- 
ding party  went  to  the  cave  to  spend  the  honeymoon. 
While  there,  they  went  to  visit  those  beautiful  portions 
of  the  cave  which  lie  beyond  the  river  '  Jordan.'  In 
order  to  do  this,  a  person  has  to  sail  down  the  river 
nearly  a  mile  before  reaching  the  avenue  which  leads 
off  from  the  river  on  the  opposite  side,  —  for  there  is 
no  shore,  or  landing-place,  between  the  point  above  on 
this  side,  where  you  come  to  the  river,  and  that  below 
on  the  other  ;  for  the  river  fills  the  whole  width  of  one 
avenue  of  the  cave,  and  is  several  feet  deep  where  the 
side  walls  descend  into  the  water.  This  party  had  de- 
scended the  river,  visited  the  cave  beyond,  and  had 
again  embarked  on  the  water  for  their  return  home- 
wards. After  they  had  ascended  the  river  about  half 
way,  some  of  the  party,  who  were  in  a  high  glee,  got 
into  a  romp  and  overturned  the  boat.  Their  lights  were 
all  extinguished,  their  matches  wet,  the  boat  filled  with 
water  and  sunk  immediately ;  and  there  they  were, 


ALLUVIUM.  57 

in  '  the  blackness  of  darkness,'  up  to  their  chins  in 
water.  No  doubt,  they  would  all  have  been  lost,  had 
it  not  been  for  the  guide's  great  presence  of  mind.  He 
charged  them  to  remain  perfectly  still ;  for,  if  they 
moved  a  single  step,  they  might  get  out  of  their  depth 
in  water  ;  and  swimming  would  not  avail  them,  for 
they  could  not  see  where  to  swim  to.  He  knew,  that, 
if  they  could  bear  the  coldness  of  the  water  any  length 
of  time,  they  would  be  safe ;  for  another  guide  would 
be  sent  from  the  cave  house,  to  see  what  had  become 
of  them.  And  in  this  perilous  condition,  up  to  their 
mouths  in  water,  in  the  midst  of  darkness  '  more  than 
night,'  four  miles  under  ground,  they  remained  for 
upwards  of  five  hours ;  at  the  end  of  which  time,  an- 
other guide  came  to  their  relief.  Matthew,  or  Mat,  the 
guide  who  rescued  them,  told  me,  that, '  when  he  got  to 
where  they  were,  his  fellow-guide,  Stephen,  (the 
Columbus  of  the  cave,)  was  swimming  around  the  rest 
of  the  party,  cheering  them,  and  directing  his  move- 
ments, while  swimming,  by  the  sound  of  their  voices, 
which  were  raised,  one  and  all,  in  prayer  and  supplica- 
tion for  deliverance.'  " 

Professor  Hall,  who  visited  this  cavern  some  years 
since,  has  furnished  the  following  minute  and  accurate 
description  of  it.  It  is  proper  to  say,  however,  that, 
since  his  visit,  various  avenues  have  been  discovered 
and  explored  to  a  great  extent. 

"  We  entered  the  main  cave  at  two  o'clock,  P.  M., 
and  proceeded  in  a  tolerably  direct  course  two  miles  to 
the  '  Temple,'  passing,  on  our  way,  the  '  Narrows,'  the 
'First  Hoppers,'  the  'Church,'  —  where,  when  the  ni- 
tre manufacturers  were  here,  there  was  occasionally 


58  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

preaching,  —  the  'Well  Cave,'  the  'Ox-trough,'  the 
'  Steamboat,'  the  '  Salts  Room,'  where  Epsom  and 
other  salts  are  crystallized  on  the  walls,  the  '  Devil's 
Looking-glass,'  and  the  '  Cataracts,'  which  are  two 
streams  of  water,  issuing  from  holes  in  the  ceiling, 
about  as  large  as  a  hogshead.  After  a  heavy  rain,  the 
noise  of  the  water,  pouring  into  the  abyss  below,  is 
heard  at  a  distance  like  the  rolling  sound  of  thunder. 

"  The  '  Temple '  is  an  immense  apartment.  Its 
floor  was  formerly  said  to  comprehend  eight  superficial 
acres.  Lee,  who  has  accurately  examined  it,  narrows 
it  down  to  two  acres.  His  estimate  is,  it  seems  to  me, 
too  large.  The  apartment  is,  however,  higher  and 
more  capacious,  beyond  doubt,  than  any  other  subter- 
ranean room  in  our  own  or  any  other  country.  In  the 
centre  there  is  a  vast  pyramidal  heap  of  fragmentary 
rocks,  the  debris  of  the  lofty  vault  above.  The  guide 
clambered  up,  and  placed  his  lamp  on  its  pinnacle. 
From  that  elevated  position  it  sent  forth  its  rays  in  all 
directions,  illuminating,  though  dimly,  the  whole  in- 
closed space,  and  gave  me  a  passably  good  impression 
of  the  vast  amplitude  of  the  apartment.  There  are 
reported  to  be  more  than  a  hundred  rooms,  of  different 
dimensions,  in  this  overgrown  under-ground  mansion. 
The  '  Temple  '  is  far  the  most  spacious,  but  you  must 
not  understand  that  it  is  built  in  the  remotest  extremity 
of  the  cave.  It  is  not  so.  The  opening  runs  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  beyond  it.  But  my  curiosity 
impelled  me  no  further. 

"  There  are  branches  innumerable  passing  off  in  all 
directions  from  the  main  cave,  some  of  which  are 
more  than  a  mile  in  extent.  These  branches  are  all 


ALLUVIUM.  59 

named  ;  but  when  they  were  christened,  or  by  whom, 
I  know  not.  One  of  them  —  the  '  Solitary  Cave  '  —  we 
explored.  Its  entrance  is  low.  We  were  obliged,  for 
the  distance  of  five  or  six  yards,  to  become  quadru- 
peds. That  passed,  we  raised  our  crouched  frames, 
and  stalked  along  as  men  erect,  and  might  have  done 
so,  had  we  been  ten  feet  taller.  The  ceiling  and  walls 
are  bleached  with  calcareous  incrustations,  and  look 
as  if  they  had  recently  been  whitewashed.  Here,  too, 
every  object  has  its  appellation.  You  see  the  '  Coral 
Grave  Branch,'  'Alexander's  Pit,'  'Robber's  Kettle,' 
'  Tecumseh's  Grave,'  &c.  &c. 

"  We  proceeded  onward,  more  than  half  a  mile, 
without  encountering  any  thing  very  remarkable.  This 
brought  us  to  the  '  Fairy  Grotto,'  —  a  splendid  grove 
of  stalactites  and  stalagmites,  of  all  sizes,  shapes,  and 
ages.  The  sound  of  the  drops  of  lime  water,  ever  and 
anon  falling  on  the  floor,  splash,  splash,  splash,  comes 
to  the  ear,  hollow  and  dismal,  long  before  you  reach 
the  spot.  The  work  goes  on  briskly,  and  without 
cessation,  amid  the  darkness  of  a  double  midnight. 
The  light  of  the  lamps  exhibits  all  the  steps  in  the 
process  of  the  formations,  from  the  nascent  protuber- 
ance, swelling  and  trembling  on  the  ceiling  above,  and 
the  mammillary  bubble,  just  beginning  to  rise  from 
below,  to  the  full-grown  pillar ;  that  is,  to  the  per- 
fect union  of  the  stalactite  and  stalagmite  in  the  form 
of  a  complete  cylinder.  What  is  there  not  in  this 
admirable  workshop  ?  Here  are  superb  pillars,  bear- 
ing rich  entablatures,  with  elegant  cornices  and  pedes- 
tals, in  all  the  architectural  orders;  alabaster  fire- 
places of  every  fashion ;  urns,  and  vases,  and  sarco- 


60  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

phagi  of  snowy  delicacy  ;  a  range  of  white,  translucent 
curtains,  thrown  gracefully  around  a  magnificent  pul- 
pit ;  little  images,  resembling  pigmies,  sitting  in  marble 
chairs,  or  reclining  on  lily  settees ;  and  whatever  other 
imitative  forms  the  most  vivid  imagination  can  con- 
jure up.  It  is  idle  to  write.  To  enjoy,  you  must 
yourself  see.  Many  of  the  tall  pillars  are  half  a  yard 
in  diameter,  and  of  the  purest  white  calcareous  ala- 
baster, capable  of  being  wrought, -and  will,  I  have  no 
doubt,  hereafter  be  wrought,  into  candlesticks,  snuff- 
boxes,  vases,  and  numberless  other  articles.  After 
loading  the  guide  and  myself  with  specimens  of  the 
productions  of  this  enchanting  grotto,  we  made  our  re- 
treat to  the  main  cave. 

"  Here,  my  lamp,  for  want  of  oil,  went  out.  '  What 
would  you  do,'  said  I  to  my  cicerone,  '  if  yours  were 
to  be  extinguished  ?  Could  you  find  your  way  to  the 
daylight  ? '  '  No,'  he  replied  ;  '  I  would  not  attempt 
it,  for  fear  I  should  break  my  neck  by  tumbling  over 
the  heaps  of  rocks  which  have  come  down  from  the 
top,  or  fall  into  some  of  the  deep  holes  which  lie 
along  this  dark  passage.  My  wisest  course  would  be 
to  remain  where  I  am,  until  the  people  in  the  house, 
alarmed  at  my  long  absence,  should  come  to  search 
for  me  with  a  light.'  Indeed,  an  imprisonment  in  this 
*  big,  dark  grave '  is  a  thing  which  I  would  by  no 
means  covet.  It  would  be,  if  possible,  more  dismal 
than  confinement  in  a  cell  of  the  Bastille.  We  were, 
in  fact, in  some  danger  of  falling  into  such  a  dilemma; 
for  my  attendant's  last  wick  was  nearly  burnt  out,  the 
light  grew  dim,  and  we  were  obliged  to  add  new  celer- 
ity to  our  weary  steps.  We  reached  the  outlet  at 


ALLUVIIDL  61 

precisely  eight  in  the  evening,  having  passed  six  hours 
in  our  subterranean  wanderings.  The  air  in  the  cave 
is  cool  and  agreeable ;  but  on  coming  out,  and  plung- 
ing suddenly  into  the  heated  atmosphere  of  the  outer 
world,  I  felt,  for  a  few  moments,  no  slight  degree  of 
debility  and  exhaustion. 

"  I  have  touched  only  on  a  few  points,  and  those, 
perhaps,  not  the  most  interesting.  To  explore  mi- 
nutely all  its  parts,  and  describe  them,  would  be  the 
work  of  a  month.  What  shall  I  say  of  this  wonder 
of  nature,  as  a  whole  ?  I  had  heard  and  read  de- 
scriptions of  it,  long  since ;  but  the  half,  the  quar- 
ter, was  not  told.  Its  vastness,  its  lofty  arches,  its 
immense  reach  into  the  bosom  of  the  solid  earth,  fill 
me  with  astonishment.  It  is — like  Mount  Blanc, 
Chimborazo,  and  the  falls  of  Niagara — one  of  God's 
mightiest  works.  Shall  I  compare  it  with  any  thing 
of  a  similar  description,  which  you  have  seen  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Altantic  ?  with  the  Grotto  of  Nep- 
tune, or  that  of  the  Sibyl,  at  Tivoli,  or  with  any  of  Vir- 
gil's poetic  Italian  machinery  ?  No  comparison  can 
be  instituted.  I  speak,  as  you  are  aware,  from  per- 
sonal knowledge.  You,  seated  on  the  opposite  bank 
of  the  Anio,  have  seen  me  clamber  up,  from  the  noisy 
waters  below,  to  the  entrance  of  the  far-famed  Grotto 
of  Neptune,  which  I  leisurely  explored.  In  point  of 
capaciousness,  it  has  little  more  to  boast  of  than  the 
cellar  of  a  large  hotel,  and,  like  that,  was,  as  I  think, 
excavated  by  human  hands.  That  of  the  Tiburtine 
Sibyl  is  still  more  limited  in  its  dimensions.  Indeed, 
every  cavern  which  I  have  ever  seen,  if  placed  along- 
side of  this,  would  dwindle  into  insignificance.  O,  that 


62  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

we  had  a  Virgil,  as  superior  to  the  Mantuan  bard,  as 
our  caves,  and  rivers,  and  mountains  are  superior  to 
those  which  he  has  celebrated  in  immortal  song ! " 

Coral  Reefs  are  extensive  deposits  of  carbonate  of 
lime,  formed  by  myriads  of  polyparia,  or  radiated  ani- 
mals, in  shallow  water,  in  the  South  Seas.  They  form 
the  habitation  of  these  animals,  and  of  course  are  or- 
ganic in  their  structure.  These  are  among  the  most  in- 
teresting phenomena  in  geology.  When  we  view  the 
enormous  masses  of  which  they  consist,  forming  reefs 
in  the  ocean  of  hundreds  of  miles  in  circuit,  and 
rising  into  extensive  islands,  and  consider  that  all  this 
is  the  work  of  an  animal  so  insignificant  as  to  be 
hardly  discernible,  we  are  lost  in  wonder  and  admi- 
ration. 

The  process  by  which  the  corallines  perform  their 
work  is  curious.  They  begin  their  foundation  upon 
some  rock  in  the  sea.  Here  the  windward  side  of  the 
structure,  which  is  exposed  to  the  break  of  the  sea, 
rises  vertically  like  a  wall ;  while  to  the  leeward  it 
shelves  away.  This  enables  them  to  work  with  facili- 
ty, for  they  are  thus  protected  from  the  violence  of 
the  waves,  which  would  otherwise  impede  or  destroy 
them. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  these  animals  distinguished 
by  M.  Lesson.  One,  which  he  calls  zoophytes  saxi- 
genes,  are  employed  in  the  construction  of  the  exterior 
walls.  The  other,  the  saxigenes  delicats,  are  pro- 
tected by  the  first,  and  never  work  except  in  shallow 
basins,  where  the  water  is  warm. 

Dr.  Mantell  furnishes  us  with  the  following  descrip- 
tion of  some  of  the  corallines.  If  we  extend  our 


observations  to  the  patches  of  white  calcareous  matter, 
called  Jlustra,  that  may  be  seen  on  every  sea-weed  or 
shell  on  the  shore,  appearing  like  delicate  lace-work, 
we  shall  discover  that  these  apparently  mere  specks  of 
earthy  substance  also  belong  to  the  animal  kingdom. 
Many  species  of  this  zoophyte  are  common  along  the 
English  coasts,  and  we  will  describe  their  structure 
somewhat  in  detail,  as  their  examination  will  serve  to 
illustrate  the  nature  of  those  corals,  which,  from  their 
magnitude  and  extent,  become  such  important  agents 
in  the  economy  of  nature. 

The  flustra,  when  taken  fresh  and  alive  out  of  the 
water,  presents  to  the  naked  eye  the  appearance  of 
fine  net- work,  coated  over  with  a  glossy  varnish.  With 
a  glass  of  moderate  power,  this  substance  is  discovered 
to  be  full  of  pores,  disposed  with  much  regularity.  If 
a  powerful  lens  be  employed,  while  the  flustra  is  im- 
mersed in  sea-water,  very  different  phenomena  appear  ; 
the  surface  is  found  to  be  invested  with  a  fleshy  or 
gelatinous  substance,  and  every  pore  to  be  the  opening 
of  a  cell,  whence  issues  a  tube,  with  several  long  feel- 
ers or  arms  ;  these  expand,  then  suddenly  close,  with- 
draw into  the  cells,  and  again  issue  forth.  The  whole 
surface  being  studded  with  these  hydra-like  forms,  the 
flustra  thus  constitutes,  as  it  were,  a  family  of  polypes, 
each  individual  of  which  is  permanently  fixed  in  a  cal- 
careous cell,  and  the  whole  connected  by  one  common 
integument. 

The  surface  of  the  flustra,  viewed  with  a  lens,  ex- 
hibits a  series  of  cells  symmetrically  arranged,  their 
forms  and  dispositions  varying  in  the  different  species. 
When  highly  magnified,  each  cavity  is  seen  to  be  the 


64  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

receptacle  of  a  polype,  which  appears  like  a  transpa- 
rent gelatinous  mass,  having  a  stomach  or  sack,  the  ex- 
ternal margin  of  which  terminates  in  eight  or  ten  feel- 
ers or  tentacula,  that  have  the  power  of  extending  and 
retracting  with  great  rapidity.  A  still  higher  power 
discovers  that  these  tentacula  are,  in  many  zoophytes, 
furnished  with  cilia  or  vibratory  organs ;  and  the  exist- 
ence of  similar  instruments  is  inferred  in  the  minute 
species  where  they  have  not  yet  been  detected,  because 
these  atoms  present  the  same  phenomena  of  currents 
as  the  larger  polyparia. 

However  improbable  it  may  appear  to  the  mind 
unaccustomed  to  investigate  the  works  of  the  Creator, 
that  beings  so  minute  as  those  under  examination 
should  prey  upon  living  forms  of  yet  more  infinitesi- 
mal proportions,  the  fact  is  nevertheless  unquestionable. 
It  is  even  possible  to  select  the  food  of  animalcules 
much  smaller  than  the  polypi  of  the  flustra,  and  thus 
exhibit  their  internal  structure !  The  animals  called 
monads  may  be  considered  as  the  lowest  limit  of  ani- 
mated nature,  so  far  as  is  cognizable  to  man,  their 
diameters  varying  from  the  twelve  hundredth  part  of 
an  inch  to  the  twenty-four  thousandth ;  and  the  powers 
of  the  microscope  at  present  extend  no  farther.  These 
creatures  are  of  a  cylindrical  or  spherical  form,  having 
a  mouth  by  which  their  nutriment  is  taken  in,  and  a 
stomach  or  digestive  apparatus.  The  latter  is  visible 
only  when  these  living  atoms  are  fed  with  coloring 
particles,  the  animals  being  transparent  and  colorless, 
and  their  natural  food  equally  so. 

Dr.  Ehrenberg,  of  Berlin,  by  furnishing  these  infu- 


soria  with  coloring  matter  for  nourishment,  has  been 
able  to  illustrate  their  organization  in  an  extraordinary 
degree.  He  employed  a  solution  of  pure  indigo  for 
this  purpose ;  and  the  results  of  his  experiments  are 
highly  interesting.  Immediately  on  a  minute  particle 
of  a  very  attenuated  solution  of  indigo  being  applied  to 
a  drop  of  water  containing  some  of  the  pedunculated 
vorticella,  the  most  beautiful  phenomena  are  observa- 
ble. Currents  are  excited  in  the  fluid  in  all  directions, 
by  the  rapid  motion  of  the  cilia,  which  form  a  crown 
round  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  of  the  animalcule ; 
and  the  particles  of  indigo  are  seen  moving  in  different 
directions,  but  generally  all  converging  towards  the  or- 
ifice or  mouth,  which  is  situated,  not  in  the  centre  of 
the  crown  of  cilia,  but  between  the  two  rows  of  these 
organs,  which  exist  consecutive  to  one  another.  The 
attention  is  no  sooner  drawn  to  this  beautiful  phenome- 
non, than  presently  the  body  of  the  animal,  which  was 
before  quite  transparent,  becomes  dotted  with  dis- 
tinctly circumscribed  spots,  of  a  dark  blue  color,  ex- 
actly corresponding  to  that  of  the  moving  particles  of 
indigo. 

But,  although,  as  we  have  already  stated,  the  monad, 
in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  and  with  the 
wonderful  instruments  which  the  ingenuity  of  man  has 
constructed,  is  the  lowest  known  term  of  organization ; 
yet  it  is  impossible  to  doubt  that  there  are  myriads  of 
living  forms  concealed  from  our  observation,  some  of 
which  serve  as  food  to  these  miniatures  of  life.  We 
may  here  observe,  that  the  structure  of  many  of  the 
animalcules  is  as  varied  and  complicated  as  that  of  the 

5 


bb  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

larger,  and,  to  our  imperfect  conceptions,  more  impor- 
tant, orders  of  animals. 

If  our  observations  on  the  living  polypi  be  con- 
tinued for  a  sufficient  period,  we  shall  at  length  per- 
ceive a  small  globule  thrown  off  from  the  mass,  and 
become  attached  to  the  sea-weed  or  the  rocks :  this 
is  the  germ  of  a  new  colony  of  this  compound  ani- 
mal. As  it  increases  in  magnitude,  the  usual  char- 
acter of  the  flustra  may  be  detected  ;  and  if  the 
fleshy  film  be  removed,  a  spot  of  calcareous  matter 
is  left  attached.  In  the  larger  and  free  masses  of 
flustra,  the  decomposition  of  the  animal  substance  af- 
ter death  is  very  manifest.  A  specimen  of  Jlustra 
foliacea,  which  was  dredged  up  twenty  miles  south- 
southwest  of  Brighton,  in  England,  in  water  eighteen 
fathoms  deep,  affords  a  fine  example  of  this  brittle 
species.  At  first,  it  was  highly  offensive,  from  the 
emanations  evolved  during  the  decomposition  of  the 
animal  matter.  It  soon  became  a  calcareous  skeleton, 
with  here  and  there  portions  of  the  shrivelled  integu- 
ment, and  of  course  without  any  traces  of  polypi  in 
the  cells. 

Let  us  now  refer  to  our  previous  investigations,  and 
inquire  if  the  flustra  present  the  essential  characters  of 
animal  existence.  Its  polype  possesses  a  determinate 
form,  and  has  a  calcareous  skeleton,  covered  by  a  soft, 
fleshy  substance,  that  can  for  a  certain  period  resist 
chemical  and  mechanical  agency.  It  is  furnished  with 
instruments  capable  of  moving  with  great  celerity, 
susceptible  of  external  impressions,  and  expanding  and 
contracting  at  will.  Here,  then,  is  evidence  of  sensa- 
tion and  of  voluntary  motion ;  and  although,  from  the 


ALLtrVTOM.  67 

extreme  minuteness  of  the  structure,  nerves  cannot  be 
detected,  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  animal 
possesses  a  nervous,  and  also  a  circulatory  system,  for 
effecting  nutrition  and  reparation.  We  find  also,  that, 
when  the  flustra  is  removed  from  the  element  in  which 
it  lived,  the  substance  of  which  it  is  composed,  like  the 
flesh  of  the  larger  animals,  undergoes  putrefaction,  — 
in  other  words,  that  the  creature  dies, —  it  has  lost  the 
vital  principle  by  which  it  previously  resisted  chemical 
agency,  and  now  submits  to  the  effects  of  those  laws 
which  act  upon  inorganic  matter ;  the  calcareous  sub- 
stance that  formed  its  support  or  skeleton,  and  which, 
like  the  bones  of  mammiferous  animals,  was  secreted 
by  the  fleshy  mass,  alone  remains. 

We  may  here  particularly  remark,  that  the  stony 
matter  or  support  of  all  zoophytes  is  formed  by  a  sim- 
ilar process ;  the  substances  called  corals  being  secre- 
tions from  an  animal  substance  by  which  they  were 
permeated  and  invested,  in  like  manner  as  the  bones 
and  nails  in  man  are  secreted  by  the  tissues  or  mem- 
branes designed  for  that  purpose,  and  acting  without 
his  knowledge  or  control.  Nothing  can  be  more  erro- 
neous thant  the  common  notion,  that  the  cells  in  the 
larger  corals  are  built  up  by  the  polypi  which  are  found 
in  them,  in  the  same  manner  as  are  the  cells  of  wax 
by  the  bee  or  the  wasp. 

From  what  has  been  advanced,  we  perceive  that  the 
flustra  is  a  compound  animal,  composed  of  an  immense 
number  of  individuals  united  in  one  body,  and  consist- 
ing of  a  fleshy  substance,  secreting  a  calcareous  skele- 
ton, and  studded  over  with  cells  containing  polypi, 
which  may  be  considered  as  foci  of  vitality,  by  whose 


68  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

agency  the  life  of  the  whole  mass  is  maintained. 
Whether  these  separate  centres  of  life  are  susceptible 
of  pain  and  pleasure  independently  of  the  whole,  it 
may  not  be  possible  to  determine ;  we  have  a  living 
proof  in  the  Siamese  twins,  that  even  in  our  own  spe- 
cies there  may  be  a  united  organization  with  distinct 
nervous  systems,  and  individual  sensations  ;  and  as  it 
is  certain  that  each  polype  enjoys  distinct  volition,  it  is 
most  probable  that  the  sensations  of  each  individual 
are  independent  of  the  general  mass.  However  this 
may  be,  we  are  at  least  certain  that  the  Eternal  has 
bestowed  on  these,  as  on  all  his  creatures,  the  capacity 
and  means  of  enjoyment. 

In  the  flustra,  then,  we  have  the  elements  of  zo- 
ophytal  organization,  and  all  the  varied  and  extraordi- 
nary forms  which  will  hereafter  come  under  our  notice 
are  but  modifications  of  this  type  of  animal  existence. 
In  some,  the  skeleton  or  support  consists  of  earthy  mat- 
ter, as  in  the  flustra, but  solid  and  hard  as  adamant;  in 
many  examples,  it  branches  out  like  a  tree  ;  in  others, 
it  constitutes  hemispherical  masses,  having  numerous 
convolutions  on  the  surface,  somewhat  resembling  in 
appearance  the  brains  of  quadrupeds ;  and  in  some,  it 
forms  an  aggregation  of  tubes,  terminating  in  star-like 
openings.  Among  the  branched  varieties,  some  are 
covered  by  pores  so  numerous  as  to  be  called  mille- 
pora  ;  in  many,  the  openings  are  distant ;  some  have 
star-like  markings  here  and  there  ;  while  in  others  the 
whole  surface  presents  a  stellated  structure.  In  many 
species,  the  fleshy  animal  matter  entirely  covers  and 
conceals  the  stony  skeleton  during  life ;  in  others,  the 
latter  becomes  exposed,  and  forms  a  trunk,  having 


branches  covered  by  living  polypi;  while  in  another 
and  numerous  division  (of  which  the  common  sertula- 
ria  is  an  example,)  the  skeleton  is  secreted  by  the 
outer  surface  of  the  animal  substance,  and  constitutes 
an  external  protection  to  the  polypi. 

Some  of  the  different  kinds  of  corals  are  thus  de- 
scribed by  Mantell.  The  red  coral  is  a  branched  zo- 
ophyte, somewhat  resembling  in  miniature  a  tree  de- 
prived of  its  leaves  and  twigs.  It  seldom  exceeds  one 
foot  in  height,  and  is  attached  to  the  rocks  by  a  broad 
expansion  or  base.  It  consists  of  a  brilliant  red,  stony 
axis,  invested  with  a  fleshy  or  gelatinous  substance  of 
a  pale  blue  color,  which  is  studded  over  with  stel- 
lular polypi.  This  coral,  as  is  well  known,  is  so 
dense  and  compact  as  to  bear  a  high  polish;  it  is 
obtained  by  dredging  in  different  parts  of  the  Medi- 
terranean and  Eastern  seas,  and  forms  an  important 
article  of  commerce.  It  varies  much  in  hue,  accord- 
ing to  its  situation  in  the  sea ;  in  shallow  water  it  is 
of  the  most  beautiful  color,  a  free  admission  of  light 
appearing  necessary  for  its  full  development.  It  is 
of  slow  growth ;  eight  or  ten  years,  in  a  moderate 
depth  of  water,  being  necessary  for  it  to  reach  matu- 
rity. Arrived  at  this  period,  it  extends  but  very 
slowly,  and  is  soon  pierced  on  all  sides  by  those 
destructive  animals  which  attack  even  the  hardest 
rocks  ;  it  loses  its  solidity,  and  the  slightest  shock  de- 
taches it  from  its  base.  Becoming  the  sport  of  the 
waves,  the  polypi  perish,  their  brilliant  skeleton  is  ex- 
posed, and  thrown  upon  the  shore;  the  bright  color 
soon  disappears,  and  the  coral  is  reduced  to  fragments 
by  the  attrition  of  the  waves,  or  mixed  with  the  re- 


70  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

mains  of  shells  and  other  marine  exuviae.  In  this  state 
it  is  thrown  up  by  the  tides,  and,  being  drifted  inland 
by  the  winds,  assists  in  forming  those  accumulations 
of  the  spoils  of  the  sea,  which  constitute  many  of  the 
modern  conglomerates. 

The  Tubipora,  or  organ-pipe  coral  is  well  known, 
from  the  elegance  and  beauty  of  one  species  (Sarcinu- 
la  musicalis),  which  is  common  in  most  collections. 
This  is  composed  of  parallel  tubes  united  by  lateral 
plates,  or  transverse  partitions,  placed  at  regular  dis- 
tances ;  in  this  manner  large  masses,  consisting  of  a 
congeries  of  pipes  or  tubes,  are  formed.  When  the 
animal  is  alive,  each  tube  contains  a  polype  of  a  beau- 
tiful bright  green  color,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  sur- 
face is  covered  with  a  gelatinous  mass  formed  by  the 
confluence  of  the  polypi.  This  species  occurs  in  great 
abundance  on  the  coast  of  New  South  Wales,  in  the 
Red  Sea,  and  in  the  Molucca  Islands,  varying  in  color 
from  a  bright  red  to  a  deep  orange.  It  grows  in  the 
shape  of  large  hemispherical  masses,  from  one  to  two 
feet  in  circumference ;  these  first  appear  as  small 
specks  adhering  to  a  shell  or  rock ;  as  they  increase, 
the  tubes  resemble  a  group  of  diverging  rays,  and  at 
length  other  tubes  are  produced  on  the  transverse 
plates,  thus  filling  up  the  intervals,  and  constituting  a 
uniform  tubular  mass ;  the  surface  being  covered  with 
a  green,  fleshy  substance,  beset  with  stellular  ani- 
malcules. 

In  the  red  coral,  no  cells  are  formed  on  the  skeleton 
to  serve  as  a  protection  to  the  polypi  ;  but  in  the  fam- 
ily of  branched,  or  arborescent,  calcareous  polyparia, 
called  madrepores,  the  little  cups  or  cells,  with  radiating 


ALLUVIUM.  71 

lamella?,  in  which  the  polypi  are  situated,  are  compos- 
ed of  the  substance  of  the  skeleton.  When  the  animals 
die,  and  the  outer  fleshy  investment  perishes,  the  axis 
is  seen  to  be  studded  over  with  elegant,  lamellated, 
stellular  cells,  variously  formed  and  arranged,  in  differ- 
ent genera  and  species.  In  some,  the  cells  are  very 
distinct ;  in  others,  they  are  exceedingly  minute.  The 
white-branched  corals,  usually  seen  in  collections,  be- 
long for  the  most  part  to  this  genus ;  it  is  not,  there- 
fore, requisite  to  describe  this  form  of  zoophyte  more 
minutely.  In  the  water  the  madrepores  are  invested 
with  a  fleshy  integument  of  various  colors ;  and  each 
cell  has  a  polype  s'imilar  to  those  of  the  corals  previ- 
ously described,  and  in  the  living  madrepore  a  polype 
is  seen  to  issue  from  each  of  the  projecting  cells,  the 
branches  being  covered  with  their  hydra-like  forms. 

In  another  division  of  corals,  the  cells  are  few,  and 
of  considerable  dimensions,  the  polypi  being  of  propor- 
tionate size,  and  bearing  considerable  analogy  to  the 
actiniae,  or  sea-anemones,  which  are  so  common  on 
the  rocks  and  in  the  shallows  on  our  shores  ;  a  few 
observations  on  these  animals  will  therefore  enable  us 
to  comprehend  the  nature  of  this  group  of  polyparia. 
The  actinia,  or  sea-animal  flower,  as  it  is  often  termed, 
appears,  when  quiescent,  like  a  mass  of  tough  jelly,  of 
a  sub-cylindrical  form,  and  of  various  tints  of  crimson, 
green,  blue,  or  brown ;  when  expanded,  it  presents  a 
broad  disk,  surrounded  by  tentacula,  having  in  the  cen- 
tre a  corrugated  surface,  which  is  contracted  into  a 
marsupial  or  purse-like  form.  The  actiniae  are  affixed 
to  the  rocks  by  a  broad  base,  but  they  can  detach 
themselves,  and  change  their  position. 


72  STRATIFIED    KOCKS. 

Among  the  various  corals,  one  of  the  most  curious 
is  that  of  the  brain-stone,  deriving  the  name   from  its 


Brain-stone  Coral. 

resemblance  to  the  convolutions  of  the  brain.  In  the 
engraving,  the  polyparia  a-re  retracted  and  concealed. 
As  one  fleshy  mass  of  these  creatures  expires,  another 
appears,  and  gradually  expands,  pouring  out  its  calca- 
reous secretion  on  the  parent  mass  of  coral ;  thus  suc- 
cessive generations  go  on  accumulating  vast  beds  of 
stony  matter,  and  lay  the  foundations  of  coral  reefs  and 
islands.  We  may  compare,  observes  Mr.  Lyell,  the 
operation  of  the  zoophytes  in  the  ocean,  to  the  effects 
produced  on  a  smaller  scale  on  land,  by  the  plants 
which  generate  peat ;  in  which  the  upper  part  of  the 
sphagnum  vegetates,  while  the  lower  is  entering  into  a 
mineral  mass,  in  which  the  traces  of  organization  re- 
main when  life  has  entirely  ceased.  In  corals,  in  like 
manner,  the  more  durable  materials  of  the  generation 
that  has  passed  away  serve  as  the  foundation  over 
which  their  progeny  spread  successive  accumulations 
of  calcareous  matter. 


73 


The  Gorgonia  flabellum,   or  Venus's  fan,  is  a  flexi- 
ble coralline,  that  is  an  inhabitant  of  almost  every  sea, 


Sea-Fan. 

and  frequently  attains  a  height  of  four  or  five  feet. 
When  fresh  from  the  water,  it  is  of  a  bright  yellow 
color.  This  species  exhibits  the  usual  structure  of  the 
corticiferous  polyparia,  or  zoophytes,  which  are  com- 
posed of  an  internal  axis  or  skeleton,  of  a  tough,  horny 
consistence,  and  of  an  external  envelope  or  rind, 
which  entirely  invests  the  former. 

The  appearance  of  living  corals  is  said  to  be  singu- 
lar and  replete  with  marvels.  In  some  parts  of  the 
sea,  the  eye  perceives»nothing  but  a  bright,  sandy  plain 
at  bottom,  extending  for  many  hundred  miles;  but  in 
the  Red  Sea,  the  whole  bed  of  this  extensive  basin  of 
water  is  absolutely  a  forest  of  submarine  plants  and 
corals.  Here  are  sponges,  gorgonise,  madrepores, 
fungise,  and  other  polyparia,  with  fuci,  algae,  and  all 
the  variety  of  marine  vegetation,  covering  every  part 
of  the  bottom,  and  presenting  the  appearance  of  a  sub- 
marine garden  of  the  most  exquisite  verdure,  enamel- 


74  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

led  with  animal  forms,  resembling,  and  even  surpassing 
in  splendid  and  gorgeous  coloring,  the  most  celebrated 
parterres  of  the  East. 

Ehrenberg  was  so  struck  with  the  magnificent  spec- 
tacle presented  by  the  living  corals  in  the  Red  Sea,  that 
he  exclaimed  with  enthusiasm,  "  Where  is  the  paradise 
of  flowers,  that  can  rival  in  variety  and  beauty  these 
living  wonders  of  the  ocean  ?  "  Some  have  compared 
the  appearance  to  beds  of  tulips  or  dahlias;  and,  in 
truth,  the  large  fungise,  with  their  crimson  disks,  and 
purple  and  yellow  tentacula,  bear  no  slight  resemblance 
to  the  latter. 

Captain  Hall  thus  describes  the  great  coral  reef  near 
the  island  of  Loo  Choo.  "  When  the  tide  has  left  the 
rock  for  some  time  dry,  it  appears  to  be  a  compact 
mass,  exceedingly  hard  and  rugged  ;  but  as  the  water 
rises,  and  the  waves  begin  to  wash  over  it,  the  polypi 
protrude  themselves  from  holes  which  were  before  in- 
visible. These  animals  are  of  a  great  variety  of  shapes 
and  sizes,  and  in  such  prodigious  numbers,  that  in  a 
short  time  the  whole  surface  of  the  rock  appears  to  be 
alive  and  in  motion.  The  most  common  form  is  that 
of  a  star,  with  arms,  or  tentacula,  which  are  moved 
about  with  a  rapid  motion  in  all  directions,  probably  to 
catch  food.  Others  are  so  sluggish,  that  they  may  be 
mistaken  for  pieces  of  the  rock,  and  are  generally  of  a 
dark  color.  When  the  coral  is  broken  about  high- 
water  mark,  it  is  a  solid,  hard  stone  ;  but  if  any  part  of 
it  be  detached  at  a  spot  where  the  tide  reaches  every 
day,  it  is  found  to  be  full  of  polypi,  of  different  lengths 
and  colors ;  some  being  as  fine  as  a  thread,  of  a  bright 
yellow,  and  sometimes  of  a  blue  color.  The  growth 


ALLUVIUM.  75 

of  coral  appears  to  cease,  when  the  worm  is  no  longer 
exposed  to  the  washing  of  the  sea.  Thus  a  reef  rises 
in  the  form  of  a  cauliflower,  till  the  top  has  gained  the 
level  of  the  highest  tides,  above  which  the  animalcules 
have  no  power  to  advance,  and  the  reef  of  course  no 
longer  extends  upwards." 

The  coral  banks  are  everywhere  seen  in  different 
stages  of  progress.  Some  are  become  islands,  but  not 
yet  habitable ;  others  are  above  high-water  mark,  but 
destitute  of  vegetation ;  while  many  are  overflowed 
with  every  returning  tide.  When  the  polypi  of  the  co- 
rals at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  cease  to  live,  their  skel- 
etons still  adhere  to  each  other,  and  the  interstices 
being  gradually  filled  up  with  sand  and  broken  pieces 
of  corals  and  shells,  washed  in  by  the  sea,  a  mass  of 
rock  is  at  length  formed.  Future  races  of  these  ani- 
malcules spread  out  upon  the  rising  bank,  and  in  their 
turn  die,  increase,  and  elevate  this  wonderful  monu- 
ment of  their  existence. 

The  reefs  which  raise  themselves  above  the  level  of 
the  sea  are  usually  of  a  circular  or  oval  form,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  deep  and  oftentimes  unfathomable  ocean. 
In  the  centre  of  each  there  is  generally  a  shallow  la- 
goon, with  still  water,  where  the  smaller  and  more 
delicate  kinds  of  zoophytes  find  a  tranquil  abode ; 
while  the  stronger  species  live  on  the  outer  margin  of 
the  isle,  where  the  surf  dashes  over  them. 

When  the  reef  is  dry  at  low  water,  the  coral  animals 
cease  to  increase.  A  continuous  mass  of  solid  stone 
is  then  seen,  which  is  composed  of  shells  and  echini, 
with  fragments  of  corals,  united  by  calcareous  sand, 
produced  by  the  pulverization  of  the  shells  of  friable 


76  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

polyparia.  Fragments  of  coral  limestone  are  thrown 
up  by  the  waves ;  these  are  cracked  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun,  washed  to  pieces  by  the  surge,  and  drifted  on  the 
reef.  After  this,  the  calcareous  mass  is  undisturbed, 
and  offers  to  the  seeds  of  the  cocoa,  pandanus,  and 
other  trees  and  plants,  floated  thither  by  the  waves,  a 
soil  on  which  they  rapidly  grow,  and  overshadow  the 
white,  dazzling  surface.  Trunks  of  trees,  drifted  by 
currents  from  other  countries,  find  here  at  length  a 
resting-place,  and  bring  with  them  some  small  animals, 
as  lizards  and  insects.  Even  before  the  trees  form 
groves  or  forests,  sea-birds  nestle  there ;  strayed  land- 
birds  find  refuge  in  the  bushes;  and  at  a  still  later 
period,  man  takes  possession  of  the  newly  created 
country.  It  is  in  this  manner  that  the  Polynesian  Ar- 
chipelago has  been  formed.  The  immediate  founda- 
tions of  the  islands  are  ancient  coral  reefs,  and  these, 
in  all  probability,  are  based  on  the  cones  or  craters  of 
submarine  volcanoes,  long  since  extinct.  There  is  an- 
other circumstance  worthy  of  remark  ;  most  of  these 
islands  have  an  inlet  through  the  reef  opposite  to  the 
large  valleys  of  the  neighbouring  land,  whence  numer- 
ous streams  issue  and  flow  into  the  sea ;  an  easy  in- 
gress is  thus  afforded  to  vessels,  as  well  as  the  means 
of  obtaining  a  supply  of  water. 

Of  the  grand  scale  on  which  the  operations  here  con- 
templated are  going  on,  we  may  form  some  idea  from 
the  facts  stated  by  competent  observers,  that  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  to  the  southwest  of  Malabar,  there  is  a 
chain  of  coral  reefs  and  islets  four  hundred  and  eighty 
geographical  miles  in  length  ;  on  the  east  coast  of  New 
Holland,  an  unbroken  reef  of  three  hundred  and  fifty 


ALLUVIUM.  77 

miles  long ;  between  that  and  New  Guinea,  a  coral 
formation,  which  extends  upwards  of  seven  hundred 
miles ;  and  that  Disappointment  Islands  and  Duff's 
Group  are  connected  by  six  hundred  miles  of  coral 
reefs,  over  which  the  natives  can  travel  from  one  island 
to  another. 

There  is  so  much  of  the  marvellous  and  sublime  in 
the  idea  of  the  creation  of  islands  and  continents  by 
the  ceaseless  labors  of  numberless  myriads  of  living 
instruments,  that  we  cannot  be  surprised  that  this  in- 
teresting subject  has  attracted  the  attention  of  one  of 
the  most  elegant  of  our  modern  poets.  The  follow- 
ing extract,  which  is  alike  poetic  and  descriptive, 
we  take  from  "  The  Pelican  Island  "  of  James  Mont- 
gomery. 

"  I  saw  the  living  pile  ascend, 
The  mausoleum  of  its  architects, 
Still  dying  upwards  as  their  labors  closed,    ! 
Slime  the  material,  but  the  slime  was  turned 
To  adamant  by  their  petrific  touch. 
Frail  were  their  frames,  ephemeral  their  lives,  — 
Their  masonry  imperishable.     All 
Life's  needful  functions,  food,  exertion,  rest, 
By  nice  economy  of  Providenre, 
Were  overruled  to  carry  on  the  process 
Which  out  of  water  brought  forth  solid  rock. 
Atom  by  atom,  thus  the  mountain  grew 
A  coral  island,  stretching  east  and  west ; 
Steep  with  the  flanks,  with  precipices  sharp, 
Descending  to  their  base  in  ocean  gloom. 
Chasms,  few,  and  narrow,  and  irregular, 
Formed  harbours,  safe  at  once  and  perilous,  — 
Safe  for  defence,  but  perilous  to  enter. 
A  sea-lake  shone  amidst  the  fossil  isle, 


78  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

Reflecting  in  a  ring  its  cliff's  and  caverns, 

With  heaven  itself  seen  like  a  lake  below. 

Compared  with  this  amazing  edifice, 

Raised  by  the  weakest  creatures  in  existence, 

What  are  the  works  of  intellectual  man, 

His  temples,  palaces,  and  sepulchres  ? 

Dust  in  the  balance,  atoms  in  the  gale, 

Compared  with  these  achievements  in  the  deep, 

Were  all  the  monuments  of  olden  time  ; 

Egypt's  gray  piles  of  hieroglyphic  grandeur, 

That  have  survived  the  language  which  they  speak, 

Preserving  its  dead  emblems  to  the  eye, 

Yet  hiding  from  the  mind  what  these  reveal ; 

Her  pyramids  would  be  mere  pinnacles, 

Her  giant  statues,  wrought  from  rocks  of  granite, 

But  puny  ornaments  for  such  a  pile 

As  this  stupendous  mound  of  catacombs, 

Filled  w.ith  dry  mummies  of  the  builder-worms." 

Mr.  Richardson,  who  is  a  poet  as  well  as  a  geologist, 
furnishes  us  with  the  following  description. 

"  THE    CORALS. 

"  Beneath  the  realm  which  the  waves  o'erwhelm, 

In  the  seas  of  the  torrid  zone, 
Our  ancient  race  have  a  dwelling-place, 
In  a  world  that  is  all  our  own. 

"  Earth  boasts  no  spots  like  the  fairy  grots 

Where  we  build  our  sparry  ceil ; 
Nor  can  its  bowers  produce  such  flowers 
As  in  depths  of  ocean  dwell. 

"  And  our  forms  so  strange  we  ever  change, 

As  over  the  deep  we  roam  ; 

And  our  varied  hue  is  ever  new, 

As  we  vary  our  ocean  home. 


79 


"  In  tranquil  calms,  we  wave  like  palms, 

Or  bend  like  the  drooping  willow; 
Or  we  climb  to  the  verge  of  the  foaming  surge, 
And  dash  to  the  winds  its  billow. 

"  In  peaceful  haunts,  like  tender  plants, 

We  twine  our  fragile  forms  ; 
Or  we  build  a  rock  to  the  tempest's  shock, 
That  mocks  its  fiercest  storms. 

"  And  we  rear  the  walls  of  those  marble  halls 

As  a  precipice  high  and  steep, 
Till  a  new-found  isle  is  seen  to  smile 
Like  a  beacon  o'er  the  deep. 

"  By  viewless  hands  those  new-born  lands 

Are  strewn  with  blessings  rife  ; 
Till  man  appears,  and  claims  the  spheres 
To  being  raised  and  life. 

"  And  we  join  the  piles  of  those  fossil  isles 

Till  they  spread  from  shore  to  shore ; 
And  we  build  from  the  caves  of  the  ocean  waves 
A  world  unknown  before. 

"  Then  say,  proud  man,  how  poor  the  plan 
Of  thy  pyramids,  castles,  and  towers ; 
How  vain  the  boasts  of  thy  mightiest  hosts, 
Or  their  labors,  —  compared  with  ours ! 

"  Though  such  our  lot,  yet  we  are  —  what, 

In  the  scale  of  being  vast  ?  — 
The  meanest  germs  of  life's  poor  worms,— 
The  lowest  and  the  last ! 

"  Yet,  though  obscure,  and  low,  and  poor, 

And  lost  in  distance  dim, 
We  still  can  raise  our  Maker's  praise, 
And  pour  our  thanks  to  him  " 


80  STRATIFIED   KOCKS. 

Silicious  sinter,  or  tufa,  a  deposit  of  silica  made  by 
the  water  of  hot  springs,  which  sometimes  hold  this 
earth  in  solution,  belongs  also  to  alluvium.  Layers 
of  this  and  clay  in  succession  often  occur,  and  these 
are  sometimes  broken  up  and  re-cemeflted,  and  thus 
form  breccia,  a  beautiful  variegated  species  of  marble- 
like  stone.  There  are  many  .of  these  hot  springs  in 
different  parts  of  the  globe.  A  high  temperature  is 
necessary  to  enable  water  to  dissolve  a  large  pro- 
portion of  silex ;  and  hence  it  is,  that  the  hot  springs, 
by  which  these  deposits  are  produced,  are  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  volcanoes,  or  in  volcanic  regions. 

The  boiling  fountains  of  Iceland,  called  the  Gey- 
sers, have  been  celebrated  for  many  years,  for  pos- 
sessing in  a  remarkable  degree  this  extraordinary  prop- 
erty of  silicious  deposition ;  holding  a  large  quantity 
of  silex  in  solution,  and  depositing  it,  when  cooling,  on 
vegetables  and  other  substances,  in  a  manner  similar 
to  that  in  which  the  carbonate  of  lime  is  precipitated 
by  the  incrusting  springs.  They  are  several  in  num- 
ber, but  the  most  celebrated  of  them  is  called  the 
Great  Geyser,  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Hecla.  The 
water  boils  with  a  loud,  rumbling  noise,  in  a  well 
of  an  irregular  form,  about  ten  feet  in  diameter, 
widening  near  the  top,  and  opening  into  a  basin  fifty- 
six  by  forty-six  feet.  Its  explosions  are  announced 
by  sounds  resembling  the  low  report  of  artillery. 
The  first  jets  which  are  thrown  up  seldom  exceed 
fifteen  or  twenty  feet,  but  the  highest  often  exceed 
eighty  feet.  On  the  propulsion  of  the  jet,  the  great  body 
of  the  column  rises  perpendicularly,  and  then  di- 
vides into  beautiful  curvated  ramifications,  which  are 


ALLUVIUM.  81 

projected  in  every  direction.  The  explosion  of  the 
Great  Geyser  takes  place  at  intervals  of  six  hours. 

Dr.  Mantell,  speaking  of  the  Geysers,  says  :  "  A  foun- 
tain of  boiling  water,  accompanied  with  a  great  evolu- 
tion of  vapor,  first  appears,  and  is  ejected  to  a  con- 
siderable height ;  a  volume  of  steam  succeeds,  and  is 
thrown  up  with  great  force,  and  a  terrible  noise,  like 
that  produced  by  the  escape  of  steam  from  the  boiler 
of  a  steam-engine.  The  operation  continues  some- 
times for  more  than  an  hour ;  an  interval  of  repose,  of 
uncertain  duration,  succeeds,  after  which  the  same 
phenomena  are  repeated.  If  stones  are  thrown  into 
the  mouth  of  the  cavity  from  which  the  fountain  has 
issued,  they  are  ejected  with  violence  after  a  short  in- 
terval, and  again  jets  of  boiling  water,  vapor,  and 
steam  appear  in  succession." 

Sir  George  Mackenzie,  describing  the  eruptions  of 
the  Great  Geyser,  witnessed  by  himself,  repre- 
sents, that  they  were  preceded  by  a  sound  like  the  dis- 
tant discharge  of  heavy  ordnance,  and  the  ground 
shook  sensibly ;  the  sound  was  repeated,  when  the 
water  in  the  basin,  after  heaving  several  times,  sud- 
denly rose  in  a  large  column,  accompanied  by  clouds 
of  steam,  to  the  height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet.  The 
column  seemed  to  burst,  and  sinking  down  produced 
a  wave,  which  caused  the  water  to  overflow  the  basin. 
A  succession  of  eighteen  or  twenty  jets  now  took 
place,  some  of  which  rose  to  the  height  of  fifty  or 
sixty  feet.  After  the  last  eruption,  which  was  the 
most  violent,  the  water  suddenly  left  the  basin,  and 
sunk  into  the  pipe  in  the  centre,  to  the  depth  of  ten 
feet.  After  a  few  hours,  the  eruption  was  repeated ; 
6 


82  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

the  jets  sometimes  attaining  ninety  feet  in  altitude. 
The  basin  of  the  Great  Geyser  is  an  irregular  oval, 
about  fifty-six  feet  by  forty -six,  formed  of  a  mound  of 
silicious  depositions  nearly  seven  feet  high;  the  pipe 
through  which  the  water  is  ejected  being  sixteen  feet  in 
diameter  at  the  opening,  but  lower  down  contracting  to 
ten  feet ;  its  perpendicular  depth  is  estimated  at  sixty 
feet. 

Sir  George  Mackenzie  supposes  that  the  water  from 
the  surface  percolates  through  the  crevices  into  a 
cavity  of  the  rock,  and  heated  steam  produced  by  vol- 
canic agency  rises  through  fissures  in  the  lava.  The 
steam  then,  as  he  thinks,  becomes  in  part  condensed, 
and  the  water,  filling  the  lower  part  of  the  cavity,  is 
raised  to  boiling  temperature,  while  steam  under  high 
pressure  occupies  the  upper  part  of  the  chasm.  The 
expansive  force  of  the  steam  becomes  gradually  aug- 
mented, till  at  lengfh  the  water  is  driven  up  the  fissure 
or  pipe,  and  a  boiling  fountain  is  produced,  which  con- 
tinues playing  till  all  the  water  in  the  reservoir  is  ex- 
pended, and  the  steam  itself  escapes  with  great  violence 
till  the  supply  is  exhausted.  The  silicious  concre- 
tions formed  by  these  springs  cover,  it  is  said,  an  ex- 
tent of  four  leagues. 

Mr.  Eugene  Robert  states,  that  this  curious  forma- 
tion may  be  seen  passing,  by  insensible  gradations, 
from  a  loose,  friable  slate,  the  result  of  a  rapid  depo- 
sition, to  the  most  compact  and  transparent  masses, 
in  which  impressions  of  the  leaves  of  the  birch-tree 
and  portions  of  stems  are  distinctly  perceptible,  pre- 
senting the  appearance  of  the  agatized  woods  of  the 
West  Indies.  Rushes,  and  various  kinds  of  mosses, 


converted  into  a  white  silicious  rock,  in  which  the 
minutest  fibres  are  preserved,  also  occur ;  but  on  the 
margin  of  the  Geysers,  from  the  splashing  of  the 
water,  the  depositions  resemble  large  cauliflowers; 
and,  on  breaking  these  masses,  vegetable  impressions 
are  often  discovered. 

Peat  is  another  of  the  alluvial  deposits.  This  is  a 
substance  derived  from  the  matter  of  decomposed 
vegetables.  It  generally  forms  a  stratum  on  the 
alluvial  soil ;  but  in  some  cases  it  alternates  with  sand, 
gravel,  clay,  or  beds  of  shells.  It  can  be  formed  only 
under  a  particular  temperature,  and  to  this  effect  moist- 
ure is  essential.  In  hot  climates,  it  can  be  formed 
only  under  water,  or  in  elevated  places,  as  other- 
wise the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter  would  be 
too  rapid ;  but  in  cold  climates,  it  may  be  formed  at 
the  level  of  the  sea.  In  England,  it  is  formed  princi- 
pally from  a  species  of  moss  growing  in  damp  situations. 
Forests,  also,  which  have  been  overthrown  by  storms, 
often  contribute  to  form  peat.  The  decay  of  the 
leaves  and  small  branches  commences  the  process, 
and  the  interstices  are  gradually  filled  up  till  the  trunks 
are  inclosed  and  covered.  In  the  valley  of  the  Somme, 
a  mass  of  peat  reposes  on  an  immense  quantity 
of  the  branches  and  trunks  of  dicotyledonous  trees, 
heaped  on  each  other  and  resting  on  clay.  On  the 
borders  of  the  Rhine  there  are  similar  masses,  in  which 
the  trunks  are  so  flattened,  that  trees  of  a  foot  in  diame- 
ter are  said  to  present  only  a  thickness  of  two  inches. 
Most  of  it,  however,  results  from  the  moss  of  the 
genus  Sphagnum,  which  decays  at  the  lower  extremity, 
while  the  top  continues  to  flourish  with  vigor.  In 


84  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

some  instances,  the  beds  are  said  to  be  more  than  forty 
feet  thick.  When  perfectly  formed,  peat  is  destitute  of 
a  fibrous  structure ;  when  wet  it  is  a  fine  black  mud, 
and  when  dry  a  powder,  consisting  chiefly  of  decom- 
posed organic  matter  called  geine,  or  humic  acid,  with 
other  acids,  phosphates,  &c.,  of  which,  part  are  soluble 
and  part  insoluble  in  water. 

In  tropical  climates,  except  on  high  lands,  the  decom- 
position of  vegetable  matter  is  so  rapid,  that  it  is  re- 
solved into  its  ultimate  elements  before  peat  can  be 
produced.  For  this  reason,  peat  is  limited  chiefly  to 
the  colder  parts  of  the  globe.  In  Ireland  the  peat 
bogs  are  said  to  occupy  one  tenth  of  the  surface,  and 
one  of  them  on  the  Shannon  is  fifty  miles  long,  and 
two  or  three  broad.  In  Massachusetts,  besides  what  is 
found  in  the  four  western  counties,  it  has  been  esti- 
mated that  there  is  peat  to  the  amount  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty  millions  of  cords,  which  is  thought  by  an 
able  writer  to  be  below  the  truth. 

Peat,  by  the  long  continued  action  of  water  and 
other  agents,  is  changed  into  bitumen  and  carbon,  and 
thus  constitutes  lignite  and  bituminous  coal.  Peat- 
bogs are  said  to  possess  great  antiseptic  power,  and 
some  remarkable  instances  of  the  preservation  of  ani- 
mal remains  in  them  are  recorded.  In  some  instances 
bodies  are  found  to  have  been  converted  into  a  fatty 
substance  called  adipocere,  resembling  spermaceti. 

In  a  peat-bog  in  Jutland,  there  was  once  found 
the  mummy  of  a  female  completely  sunk  in  the 
ground,  and  fastened  to  a  stake  by  means  of  clamps 
and  hooks.  The  fragments  of  clothing  that  remained 
enabled  the  antiquaries  to  decide,  with  tolerable  cer- 


tainty,  that  it  belonged  to  the  last  period  of  paganism  ; 
and  M.  Petersen  has  endeavoured  to  prove,  in  an  able 
historical  essay,  that  it  was  the  body  of  Gunhilda,  queen 
of  Norway,  whom  King  Harold,  by  a  promise  of  mar- 
riage, enticed  to  Denmark,  A.  D.  965,  and  put  to 
death  by  sinking  her  in  a  bog. 

The  growth  of  peat  is  various,  according  to  circum- 
stances. On  the  continent  of  Europe,  it  is  said  to 
have  gained  seven  feet  in  thirty  years ;  and  in  some 
peat-bogs  large  trees  have  been  found  standing  where 
they  originally  grew,  twenty  feet  deep. 

Silicious  marl  is  a  deposite  much  resembling  the 
calcareous  marl,  both  of  which  are  found  a  few  inches 
thick  beneath  beds  of  peat  and  mud  in  primary 
regions.  The  description  given  of  it  is,  that  when 
pure  it  is  white,  and  nearly  as  light  as  the  carbonate  of 
magnesia ;  but  it  is  usually  more  or  less  mixed  with 
clay.  By  analysis,  it  is  found  to  be  nearly  pure  silica ; 
and  what  is  most  wonderful  is  the  discovery,  that  it  is 
almost  entirely  composed  of  the  silicious  shields  or 
skeletons  of  those  microscopic  animals  called  infusoria 
or  animalculse,  which  have  lived  and  died  in  countless 
numbers  in  the  ponds  at  the  bottom  of  which  this  sub- 
stance has  been  deposited.  The  animals  are  not  often 
discernible  without  the  aid  of  powerful  microscopes. 
To  a  Prussian  naturalist,  Professor  Ehrenberg,  belongs 
the "  honor  of  discovering  their  remarkable  relation  to 
geological  science.  In  the  course  of  his  investigations, 
he  has  described  seven  hundred  and  twenty-two  living 
species,  which  exist  in  countless  numbers  in  fluids, 
and  even  in  the  fluids  of  living  and  healthy  animals. 
These  creatures  were  supposed  to  be  very  simple  in 


86  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

their  organization,  —  a  kind  of  animated  atoms ;  but 
the  naturalist  just  mentioned  has  discovered  in  them 
mouth,  teeth,  muscles,  stomach,  nerves,  glands,  eyes, 
and  organs  of  reproduction.  Some  of  the  smaller 
animalculse  are  said  to  be  not  more  than  the  twenty-four 
thousandth  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  the  thick- 
ness of  the  skin  of  their  stomachs  not  more  than  the 
fifty  millionth  part  of  an  inch.  They  are  viviparous, 
oviparous,  and  geminiparous.  A  single  individual  of 
one  species  increased  in  ten  days  to  one  million ;  on 
the  eleventh  day  to  four  millions ;  and  on  the  twelfth  day 
to  sixteen  millions.  In  another  case,  Ehrenberg  says, 
that  one  individual,  in  four  days,  can  become  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy  billions,  —  as  many  as  are  contained 
in  two  cubic  feet  of  the  slate  of  Bilin.  This  increase  is 
said  to  take  place  by  voluntary  division.  An  animal 
capable  of  self-division  first  doubles  the  inner  organs, 
and  subsequently  decreases  exteriorly  in  size.  Self- 
division  proceeds  from  the  interior  towards  the  ex- 
terior. 

The  infinitesimal  minuteness  of  these  animals  may 
be  seen  from  what  Leeuwenhoek  states,  —  that  one  bil- 
lion of  the  animalculse,  such  as  occur  in  common  water, 
would  not  altogether  be  so  large  as  a  grain  of  sand ; 
and  Ehrenberg  estimates  that  five  hundred  millions  of 
them  are  actually  living  in  a  single  drop  of  water. 
They  are  found  in  the  red-colored  snow  of  the  Alps ; 
and  it  is  very  curious,  that,  if  the  snow  has  been  melt- 
ed but  a  short  time,  so  as  to  become  a  little  warm- 
er than  the  freezing  point,  the  animals  die  because  they 
cannot  endure  so  much  heat.  These  animals  are  of 
various  shapes,  and  bear  different  names.  Some  of  their 


ALLUVIUM.  87 

shields  resemble  a  tubular  chain.  But  the  most  won- 
derful fact  relating  to  them  is  the  incredible  number  of 
their  skeletons  or  shields  found  in  a  fossil  state,  in  vari- 
ous districts,  actually  constituting  the  whole  mass  of 
soils  and  rocks,  several  feet  thick,  and  many  acres  in 
extent.  Many  strata  are  entirely  composed  of  the 
shields  or  skeletons  of  infusoria  ;  and  in  Sweden,  an 
edible  earth,  which  is  used  with  flour  for  bread,  resem- 
bling fine  flour,  and  celebrated  for  its  nutritious  quali- 
ties, wholly  consists  of  the  shells  of  microscopic  ani- 
malcules. This  earth  occurs  in  layers  nearly  thirty 
feet  in  thickness. 

Deposits  formed  by  the  infusoria  are  constantly  in 
process  of  formation,  wherever  a  condition  suitable  to 
their  economy  exists.  In  lakes,  marshes,  and  peat- 
bogs, the  animalcules  which  inhabit  the  water  pass 
through  their  brief  period  of  existence,  and  their  in- 
destructible skeletons  then  sink  to  the  bottom  and  form 
new  deposits.  Professor  Bailey  discovered  in  a  peat- 
bog, near  West  Point,  layers,  several  hundred  yards  in 
extent,  of  a  white  earthy  substance,  which  is  wholly 
made  up  of  the  silicious  shells  of  these  animals.  The 
polishing  slate  of  Bilin,  in  Germany,  which  forms  a 
bed  fourteen  feet  thick,  and  the  eatable  earth  of  Lune- 
burg,  a  similar  bed  twenty  feet  thick,  are  composed 
of  these  animal  remains.  Yet  it  would  take,  it  is  said, 
forty-one  thousand  millions  of  their  skeletons  to  make 
a  cubic  inch  ;  their  weight  being  only  two  hundred  and 
twenty  grains.  A  single  shield  or  skeleton  weighs 
about  the  one  hundred  and  eighty-seven  millionth  of  a 
grain. 

Entire  masses  of  flint  are  thus  composed  of  the  fos- 


SS  STRATIFIED   ROCKS. 

silized  remains  of  beings  as  wonderful  in  their  struct- 
ure and  organization  as  any  of  the  colossal  forms  of 
animal  existence.  Some  kinds  of  opal  appear  to  have 
been  formed  of  the  dissolved  silicious  skeletons  of  ani- 
malcules ;  and  the  more  durable  forms  are  seen  pre- 
served in  it  like  insects  in  amber.  The  well  known 
bog-iron  ore  is  ascertained  to  be  composed  of  the 
thread-like  carcasses  of  animalcules  so  inconceivably 
minute,  that  every  cubic  inch  contains  no  less  than  tsvo 
millions  of  millions  of  these  once  living  organized 
forms  ;  in  other  words,  more  than  two  million  times  the 
number  of  the  whole  human  race  now  existing  over 
the  entire  face  of  the  earth.  The  fossil  animalcule 
found  in  iron  ochre  is  only  the  one  twenty-first  part  of 
the  thickness  of  a  human  hair ;  and  one  cubic  inch 
of  this  ochre  must  contain  one  billion  of  the  skeletons 
of  these  once  living  beings. 

The  deposits  of  which  we  are  speaking  are  not 
confined  to  one  country,  but  they  appear  to  be  common 
in  all  parts  of  the  globe.  They  abound  in  Massachu- 
setts ;  and  specimens  have  been  examined  by  Professor 
Hitchcock  from  Bar  re,  Manchester,  Wrentham,  North 
Bridgewater,  Andover,  &c.  It  may  be  proper  to  add, 
that  some  of  these  deposits  belong  to  the  tertiary,  and 
some  to  other  than  alluvial  formations ;  but  it  seemed 
proper,  while  treating  of  the  subject,  to  introduce 
them  here. 

In  view  of  the  wonders  which  open  on  us  as  we 
dwell  on  the  facts  brought  to  light  by  the  discoveries 
of  Ehrenberg,  we  may  well  adopt  the  language  of  a 
distinguished  European  writer,  Professor  Hausenon, 
who  says,  —  that  a  mass  more  than  twenty  feet  in 


ALLUVIUM.  89 

thickness  should  consist  almost  entirely  of  the  cover- 
ings of  animals  which  are  invisible  to  the  naked  eye, 
and  which  can  only  be  recognized  with  the  assistance 
of  a  high  magnifying  power,  is  an  extraordinary  fact, 
and  one  which  the  mind  cannot  fully  comprehend  with- 
out some  difficulty.  The  further  we  attempt  to  pursue 
the  subject,  the  more  we  are  astonished.  That  which 
occurs  in  an  invisible  condition  in  the  fluid  element, 
and  which  cannot  be  recognized  by  the  human  senses 
without  the  assistance  of  art,  becomes,  by  immense  ac- 
cumulation and  solidification,  one  of  the  circle  of  phe- 
nomena which  are  witnessed  by  us  in  the  ordinary 
way  ;  a  compact  mass  is  formed,  which  can  be  weighed, 
felt,  and  seen  ;  and  this  mass  is  presented  to  us  in  such 
quantity,  that,  when  regarded  only  in  one  direction,  it 
surpasses  by  three  times  the  height  of  the  human 
figure.  Who  could  venture  to  calculate  the  number 
of  infusory  animals  which  would  be  required  to  pro- 
duce even  one  cubic  inch  of  this  mass  ?  And  who 
could  venture  to  determine  the  number  of  centuries 
during  which  the  accumulation  of  a  bed  twenty  feet  in 
thickness  was  taking  place?  And  yet,  this  mass  is 
only  the  product  of  yesterday,  compared  with  the  more 
compact  silicious  masses  for  which  the  infusoria  of  a 
destroyed  creation  afforded  materials.  But  what  would 
become  of  that  loose,  light  silica,  —  which,  by  its 
great  porosity  and  power  of  absorbing  water  in  quan- 
tity, in  some  measure  indicates  its  origin,  —  if,  instead 
of  its  being  covered  by  soil  one  foot  and  a  half  in 
thickness,  it  had  been  covered  by  a  great  mass  of  earth 
or  rock,  or  if  another  power,  such  as  the  action  of  fire, 
had  caused  its  solidification  ?  In  that  case  we  should 


JW  STRATIFIED    BOCKS. 

have  had  no  bed  twenty  feet  in  thickness,  but  should 
perhaps  have  found  a  compact  stony  mass,  capable 
of  scratching  glass,  affording  sparks  with  steel,  and 
polishable,  —  a  substance,  which,  were  it  not  for  the 
abundant  evidence  furnished  by  the  discoveries  of 
Ehrenberg,  it  would  be  still  more  difficult  to  suppose 
had  resulted  from  the  coverings  of  invisible  animals. 
Such  a  consolidation  and  hardening  of  this  loose  silica 
might,  perhaps,  be  partly  accomplished  in  another  way, 
by  making  the  experiment  of  employing  it  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  glass,  or  as  one  of  the  ingredients  in  por- 
celain ;  by  which  means  a  discovery,  so  very  remark- 
able in  a  philosophical  point  of  view,  might  at  the  same 
time  become  of  practical  importance.  Glass  formed 
from  the  coverings  of  infusory  animals  !  Who  would, 
a  few  years  ago,  have  believed  in  the  possibility  ? 

Bitumen  appears  under  various  forms,  sometimes 
combined  with  coral,  but  generally  in  the  form  of 
naphtha,  petroleum,  or  asphaltum,  issuing  from  springs. 
Large  quantities  of  it  are  thus  obtained  in  different 
parts  of  the  world.  It  is  said  to  be  the  result  of 
changes  effected  in  vegetable  matter  during  its  miner- 
alization, and  it  often  goes  by  the  name  of  mineral  oil. 

Naphtha  is  described  as  being  nearly  colorless  and 
transparent,  burning  with  a  blue  flame,  emitting  a 
powerful  odor,  and  leaving  no  residuum.  Genoa  is 
lighted  by  naphtha  from  a  neighbouring  spring. 

Petroleum  is  of  a  dark  color,  and  thicker  than  com- 
mon tar.  From  a  careful  analysis  of  petroleum,  and 
certain  turpentine  oils,  Dr.  Mantell  says,  it  is  clear  that 
their  principal  component  parts  are  identical ;  and  he 
remarks,  it  appears  evident  that  petroleum  has  origin- 


ALLTTVIUM.  91 

ated  from  the  coniferous  trees,  whose  remains  have 
contributed  so  largely  to  the  formation  of  coal,  and  that 
the  mineral  oil  is  nothing  more  than  the  turpentine  oil 
of  the  pines  of  former  ages.  Not  only  the  wood,  but 
also  large  accumulations  of  the  needle-like  leaves  of 
the  pines,  may  have  contributed  to  this  process. 

The  occurrence  of  petroleum  in  springs  does  not 
seem  to  depend  on  combustion,  but  is  simply  the  result 
of  subterranean  heat.  According  to  the  information 
we  now  possess,  it  is  not  necessary  that  strata  should 
be  at  a  very  great  depth  beneath  the  surface  to  acquire 
a  heat  equal  to  the  boiling  point  of  water  or  mineral 
oil.  In  such  a  position,  the  oil  must  have  suffered  a 
slow  distillation,  and  have  found  its  way  to  the  surface ; 
or  have  impregnated  a  portion  of  the  earth,  so  as  to 
enable  us  to  collect  it  in  wells.  Petroleum,  it  is  said, 
is  now  daily  discharging  into  the  soft  mud  and  gravel 
in  the  beds  of  the  Muskingum  and  Hews  rivers. 

The  amount  of  bituminous  matter  discharged  from 
certain  springs  is  very  great.  In  the  Birman  empire, 
a  group  of  springs,  it  is  said,  at  one  locality,  yielded 
annually  four  hundred  thousand  hogsheads.  It  is  often 
called  Seneca  oil  in  this  country,  from  having  been 
early  found  on  the  surface  of  some  springs  at  Seneca, 
in  New  York.  It  is  thrown  up  in  considerable  abun- 
dance, also,  at  the  salt-borings  on  the  Kenawha  River, 
in  Ohio,  where,  a  few  years  ago,  a  large  quantity  of  it, 
floating  on  the  surface  of  a  small  stream,  took  fire,  and 
the  river,  for  half  a  mile  in  extent,  appeared  as  a  sheet 
of  flame.  The  Dead  Sea  is  called  the  Lake  Asphal- 
tites,  from  the  asphaltum  which  formerly  abounded 
there. 


92  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

In  Cumberland  county,  Kentucky,  some  years  since, 
in  boring  for  salt  water,  at  the  depth  of  one  hundred 
and  eighty  feet,-  a  fountain  of  petroleum,  or  mineral 
oil,  was  struck.  When  the  auger  was  withdrawn,  the 
oil  was  thrown  in  a  continued  stream  more  than  twelve 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Although  the 
quantity  somewhat  abated,  after  the  discharge  of  the 
first  few  minutes,  during  which  it  was  supposed  to  emit 
seventy-five  gallons  a  minute,  it  still  continued  to  flow 
in  a  stream,  which  made  its  way  to  the  Cumberland, 
for  a  long  distance  covering  its  surface  with  its  oily 
pellicle. 

But  the  most  remarkable  locality  of  bituminous 
matter  is  said  to  be  the  Pitch  Lake,  in  the  island  of 
Trinidad,  in  the  West  Indies.  It  is  three  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, and  of  unknown  thickness.  It  is  sufficient- 
ly hard  to  sustain  men  and  quadrupeds,  though  at  some 
seasons  of  the  year  it  is  soft.  Near  Ait,  on  the  Eu- 
phrates, is  a  collection  of  springs  of  petroleum,  which 
make  a  noise  like  a  smith's  forge,  incessantly  puffing 
and  blowing  so  loud  that  it  may  be  heard  a  mile  off. 
It  is  hence  called  by  the  Arabs  Bab  el  Jehennam,  that 
is,  hell-gate.  The  liquid  swallows  up  heavy  animals 
that  venture  upon  its  surface,  and  many  camels  from 
time  to  time  fall  into  the  pits  and  are  lost.  It  issues 
from  a  lake,  and,  sending  forth  a  pitchy  smoke,  con- 
tinually boils  over,  and  spreads  itself  around  to  a  great 
extent.  Were  it  hot  that  the  inundations  of  the  Eu- 
phrates carry  away  the  pitch  which  covers  the  sands 
from  the  place  where  it  rises  to  the  river,  there  would 
have  been  mountains  of  it  long  since.  Southey  al- 
ludes to  this  scene  in  the  following  lines. 


ALLTTVIUM.  93 

"  From  Ait's  bitumen  lake 
That  heavy  cloud  ascends, 
That  everlasting  roar, 
From  where  its  gushing  springs 

Boil  their  black  billows  up 

Along  the  verge  of  that  wide  lake, 

Toward  a  ridge  of  rocks  that  banked  its  side, 
There,  from  a  cave,  with  torrent  force 
And  everlasting  roar, 

The  black  bitumen  rolled 

The  affrighted  countrymen 
Call  it  the  mouth  of  hell." 

Mineral  oil  is  said  to  have  been  a  principal  ingredi- 
ent in  the  cement  used  for  the  walls  of  Babylon,  and 
of  the  Temple  in  Jerusalem.  Asphaltum,  too,  has  re- 
cently been  employed  to  form  a  pavement  for  streets. 
Alluvial  sandstone,  conglomerate,  and  breccia  are 
formed  by  the  cementation  of  sand,  rounded  pebbles, 
or  angular  fragments,  by  iron  or  carbonate  of  lime, 
which  is  infiltrated  through  the  mass  in  a  state  of  solu- 
tion, thus  forming  them  into  a  compact  mass.  When 
sand  is  thus  cemented,  it  is  called  sandstone  ;  rounded 
pebbles  produce  a  conglomerate  or  pudding-stone  ;  and 
angular  fragments,  breccia.  Of  the  latter,  the  beautiful 
columns  of  the  Hall  of  Representatives,  at  Washing- 
ton, are  formed. 

These  varieties  of  alluvium,  which  we  have  thus  de- 
scribed, may  be  regarded  as  a  formation,  in  a  geologi- 
cal sense.  The  period  during  which  the  process  of 
deposition  has  been  going  on  is  called  a  geological 
period,  and  the  point  of  time  at  which  a  general  and 
important  change  occurs  is  called  an  epoch.  Many 
such  epochs  are  indicated  by  the  condition  of  the  vari- 
ous masses  found  upon  the  surface  of  the  globe. 


94  STRATIFIED   ROCKS. 


DRIFT,    OR    DILUVIUM. 

THE  next  system  of  the  stratified  rocks  is  that  which 
was  formerly  called  diluvium,  but  more  recently  drift. 
Some  have  termed  it  the  bowlder  formation,  or  the 
erratic  block  group.  Diluvium  seems  to  refer  its  origin 
to  a  deluge,  and  therefore,  says  Professor  Hitchcock, 
is  objectionable.  He  prefers,  and  uses,  the  appellation 
of  drift. 

The  greatest  portion  of  it  is  composed  of  sand  and 
gravel,  of  different  degrees  of  fineness,  confusedly 
mixed  together.  A  remarkable  fact  is,  that  this  gravel 
is  not  derived  from  the  rocks  beneath  it,  but  from  those 
at  a  distance  of  several  miles,  and,  in  this  country, 
usually  from  ledges,  lying  in  a  northwest  direction 
from  the  beds  or  deposits.  The  surface  of  this  gravel 
is  often  scooped  out  into  deep  basin-shaped  depressions, 
and  raised  into  corresponding  elevations  ;  the  difference 
of  level  being  sometimes  twenty  or  thirty,  and  even 
one  hundred  or  two  hundred  feet.  Scattered  through 
this  gravel  are  rounded  masses  of  rock,  of  a  size  larger 
than  pebbles,  which  are  called  bowlders,  and  also  erratic 
blocks,  and  lost  rocks.  There  are  a  number  of  curi- 
ous facts  observed  with  respect  to  these  bowlders. 
Sometimes  they  are  seen  on  the  surface,  and  even  on 
the  summit,  of  mountain  ridges.  They  are  likewise 
found  so  poised,  that  a  small  force  will  move  them. 
These  are  the  rocking-stones,  which  are  mentioned  as 
existing,  of  greater  or  less  size,  in  almost  all  the  East- 


DRIFT,   OR   DILtrVTCTM.  95 

ern  States.*  These  weigh  fifty  and  sometimes  even 
one  hundred  tons  or  more. 

Lying  over  the  gravel,  and  on  many  plains  where 
there  is  now  no  water,  are  found  thick  beds  of  sand 
and  clay,  which  were  deposited,  no  doubt,  more  quietly, 
and  yet  about  the  close  of  the  same  period  as  common 
drift.  The  coarse  material  comes  first,  then  clay,  then 
sand.  Sometimes  the  sand  and  gravel  consolidate 
into  sandstone  and  conglomerate,  by  the  infiltration 
of  iron  or  carbonate  of  lime.  Many  of  the  precious 
stones  and  metals,  as  the  diamond,  sapphire,  topaz, 
ruby,  and  zircon,  platina,  gold,  and  tin,  are  found  in 
drift.  Platina,  gold,  and  diamond  are  sought  for  al- 
most exclusively  in  this  formation. 

Drift  is  distinguished  from  the  deposits  of  alluvium, 
1.  By  its  being  found  where  no  action,  no  existing 
agency,  could  have  produced  it ;  2.  By  its  requiring,  if 
not  a  different  agency,  yet  a  greater  intensity  of  action, 
tor  its  production ;  3.  By  the  evidence  of  there  hav- 
ing been  a  very  different  climate  between  the  two 
periods. 

It  differs  likewise  from  the  deposits  of  the  tertiary 
system  ;  for  that  is  found  in  limited  troughs  and  basins, 
whereas  drift  is  scattered  over  almost  all  the  northern 
regions  of  the  globe,  and  even  on  the  tops  of  the  high- 
est mountains  ;  thus  showing  that  it  must  have  resulted 
from  some  general  cause.  It  is  also  unstratified,  and 
its  situation  is  such,  that  it  could  not,  in  general,  have 


*  There  is  one  of  these  on  the  land  of  Kilby  Page,  Esq.,  at 
Jamaica  Plain,  Roxbury.  There  is  another  at  Barre,  and  still 
another  at  Fall  River. 


96  STRATIFIED   ROCKS. 

been  deposited  by  water ;  yet  the  sand  and  clay  which 
form  its  upper  part  must  have  been  deposited  in  quiet 
waters.  It  is  likewise  almost  destitute  of  organic  re- 
mains of  animals  and  plants  living  at  the  time  when  it 
was  produced,  while  the  contrary  is  the  fact  in  respect 
to  the  tertiary  strata.  Finally,  when  the  drift  was  de- 
posited, the  climate  must  have  been  colder  than  at 
present ;  whereas  the  reverse  may  be  stated  of  the 
tertiary  formations. 

In  the  dispersion  of  drift,  there  is  the  evidence  of  two 
distinct  kinds  of  action,  though  these  may  have  resulted 
from  the  same  cause,  operating  differently  in  different 
circumstances.  First,  the  drift  has  been  carried  away 
from  the  line  of  axis  of  the  tops  of  particular  moun- 
tains, and  spread  over  the  adjoining  plains.  Secondly, 
the  agency  employed  in  the  dispersion  has  operated  on 
a  more  extended  scale,  and  driven  it  southerly  to  a 
great  distance. 

The  character  of  the  erratic  blocks,  or  bowlders^ 
which  are  scattered  over  the  plains  in  many  countries, 
correspond  to  rocks  often  far  distant,  and  have  no  sim- 
ilarity to  those  which  are  near  them.  The  best  exam- 
ple of  the  mode  of  dispersion  first  mentioned  above  is 
said  to  be  found  in  the  Alps.  The  bowlders  there 
have  usually  been  carried  down  the  valleys,  and  they 
are  now  found  in  great  abundance  opposite  their  lower 
openings.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Jura,  where  that 
chain  of  mountains  is  separated  by  the  long  and  broad 
valley  of  the  Aar,  we  also  find  large  blocks  of  granite, 
often  thirty  feet  in  length,  and  twenty  in  thickness,  ly- 
ing at  an  elevation  of  more  than  fifteen  hundred  feet 
above  the  valley.  That  these  blocks  came  from  the 


DRIFT,    OR    DILUVIUM.  97 

opposite  Alps  is  very  probable,  as  the  Jura  mountains 
are  of  a  different  kind  of  rock.  Similar  blocks  of 
granite  have  been  found  in  Iceland,  which  is  itself 
formed  of  lava.  In  the  North  of  Germany  these  bowl- 
ders of  limestone  are  found,  containing  fossils  which 
do  not  belong  to  that  locality,  and  hence  must  have 
come  across  the  Baltic  from  Scandinavia. 

The  evidence,  where  they  are  found,  is  very  decisive 
of  the  direction  they  have  taken.  For  instance,  on 
the  Western  continent,  the  bowlders  spread  over  the 
southern  part  of  Nova  Scotia  were  derived  from  the 
ledges  in  the  northern  part  of  the  province.  So,  through 
the  whole  of  Maine,  there  is  the  same  striking  evidence 
of  the  dispersion  of  the  drift  a  few  degrees  east  of 
south.  They  are  found  even  near  the  top  of  Mount 
Katahdin,  in  Maine,  above  five  thousand  feet  high. 

In  Massachusetts,  the  drift  is  said  to  have  varied  from 
north  and  south,  to  northeast  and  southwest ;  general- 
ly, the  course  was  a  few  degrees  east  of  south.  The 
current  was  thus  carried  obliquely  across  the  most  pre- 
cipitous ridges  of  the  mountains ;  but  the  bowlders 
kept  on  their  course  with  remarkable  uniformity.  The 
largest  blocks  are  described  as  lying  nearest  -to  the 
bed  from  which  they  came,  and  thus  they  decrease  in 
size  and  quantity  in  a  southeast  direction  for  several 
miles ;  sometimes,  it  is  said,  fifty  or  sixty,  and  even 
one  hundred  miles.  They  are  found  likewise  on  the 
islands  many  miles  distant  from  the  coast,  as  on  Long 
Island.  In  Western  Massachusetts,  the  bowlders  must 
have  been  carried  over  mountains  from  one  thousand 
to  three  thousand  feet  in  height. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  New  York,  the  course  was  the 
7 


98  STRATIFIED    ROCKS.  .£; 

same  as  in  Massachusetts,  —  southeast ;  but  in  the 
western,  it  seems  to  have  been  sometimes  west  of 
south.  In  the  southeastern  part  of  that  State,  its  direc- 
tion varied  several  degrees  west  of  south  to  southeast, 
and  near  the  city  of  New  York  the  course  is  said  to 
have  been  northwest  and  southeast.  "  In  the  fossilife- 
rous  regions  of  Western  New  York,"  says  Professor, 
Hitchcock,  to  whose  "  Geology  "  we  are  indebted  for 
most  of  these  facts,  "  and  in  the  States  south  of  the 
western  lakes,  great  numbers  of  bowlders  of  primitive 
rocks  are  strewed  over  the  surface,  significantly  called 
lost  rocks.  These  have  been  satisfactorily  traced  to 
the  beds  from  which  they  were  derived,  in  the  western 
part  of  Michigan,  and  on  the  north  side  of  the  fakes  in 
Upper  Canada.  Similar  evidence  of  a  southeasterly 
drift  exists  in  Virginia.  According  to  Dr.  Drake,  prim- 
itive pebbles  occur  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi, 
as  far  south  as  Natchez.  Vast  quantities  of  bowlders 
of  primary  rocks  are  also  said  to  be  scattered  over  the 
great  valley  of  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi,  from  the 
Yellowstone  almost  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  which  have 
been  drifted  thither  from  the  northwest." 

At  the  Red  Pipestone  quarry  there  are  five  granite 
bowlders  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet  in  diameter, 
which  it  is  supposed  must  have  been  carried  several 
hundred  miles,  from  the  north.  The  bowlders  strewed 
over  Ohio  were  doubtless  derived  from  the  primary 
rocks  on  the  north  side  of  the  great  lakes,  and  must 
have  been  carried  from  four  hundred  to  six  hundred 
miles. 

In  Great  Britain  the  course  of  drift  is  said  to  have 
been  a  little  east  of  south ;  modified,  however,  more 


DRIFT,    OR    DILUVIUM.  99 

or  less,  by  the  shape  of  the  mountains ;  some  of  which 
appear  not  to  have  been  passed  over  by  the  bowlders, 
except  at  their  lowest  points.  In  the  eastern  part  of 
England,  the  drift  appears  to  have  been  derived  from 
Norway. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe,  the  Netherlands,  Den- 
mark, the  plains  of  the  North  of  Germany,  and  of 
Poland  and  Russia,  are  strewed  over  with  bowlders  and 
pebbles,  which  can  be  traced  to  the  parent  rocks,  in 
Sweden,  Lapland,  and  Finland ;  in  which  countries 
they  are  yet  more  numerous  on  the  surface.  In  most 
cases,  these  bowlders  must  have  crossed  the  Baltic  Sea. 
In  Sweden,  the  current  appears  to  have  set  south- 
southwest.  The  blocks  decrease  in  size,  on  going 
south;  and  finally,  at  a  great  distance, —  more  than 
four  hundred  miles,  —  they  disappear. 

In  Northern  Syria,  sixty  or  seventy  miles  north  of 
Beyroot,  is  a  volcanic  region  with  a  remarkable  locality 
of  greenstone.  The  pebbles  of  this  locality,  it  is  said, 
are  scattered  over  the  whole  distance  to  that  city. 
They  are  small  at  this  place,  but  increase  in  size  as  we 
advance  towards  the  north. 

In  the  equatorial  regions  of  South  America,  it  is 
stated  that  there  are  no  bowlders  ;  but  beyond  forty- 
one  degrees  of  south  latitude  they  appear,  in  Chili 
and  Patagonia.  Some  have  inferred  from  this,  that 
drift  is  confined  to  the  colder  regions.  But  it  is  also 
found  in  the  West  Indies,  and  probably,  as  the  equato- 
rial regions  are  more  carefully  examined,  it  may  be 
found  even  in  other  parts  of  them.  Cases  of  erratic 
bowlders  are  said  to  occur  in  the  hill-country  at  the 
foot  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains. 


100  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

The  crests  and  steep  sides  of  high  mountains  and 
alluvial  plains,  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, are  covered  with  a  coat  of  bowlders,  gravel, 
and  sand,  whose  thickness  varies  from  a  few  inches  to 
one  or  two  hundred  feet.  It  is  stated,  that  scarcely 
any  mountains  there,  except  perhaps  the  Pyrenees, 
the  Apennines,  the  Carpathians,  and  those  of  Bohemia, 
are  destitute  of  drift ;  and  sometimes  very  large  blocks 
are  poised  on  their  summits. 

Drift  is  found  in  its  greatest  quantities,  however,  in 
the  hilly  regions ;  but  chiefly  in  the  valleys,  and  near 
gorges  and  defiles.  It  is  generally  composed  of  round- 
ed bowlders,  pebbles,  sand,  and  even  mud,  piled  up  in 
ridges,  straight,  curved,  and  winding,  and  also  in  regu- 
lar heaps.  These  ridges,  or  mounds,  especially  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Alps,  are  called  moraines.  This  term 
is  also  applied  to  those  heaps  of  ruins  of  rocks  and 
earth,  formed  by  the  grating  of  icebergs  along  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sea,  as  well  as  those  which  have  been  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  glaciers.  These  moraines  are 
found  in  great  frequency  in  New  England,  and,  as 
Professor  Hitchcock  observes,  are  sometimes  so  crowd- 
ed together  as  to  exhibit  a  picturesque  appearance, 
being  made  up  of  winding  and  conical  elevations,  with 
deep  intervening  cavities,  as  if  scooped  out  by  the 
hands  of  a  Titan.  Some  of  them,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Plymouth  and  near  the  termination  of  Cape  Cod, 
are  two  or  three  hundred  feet  high.  These  are  dis- 
tant fifty  to  one  hundred  miles  from  any  mountains 
higher  than  they  are.  They  are  supposed  to  have 
been  left  by  the  ice  in  the  same  state  in  which  they  are 
now  found,  as  the  hollows  between  these  hills  are  not 


DRIFT,    OR   DILUVIUM.  101 

valleys,  but  irregular  depressions,  and  therefore  have 
not  been  afterwards  subject  to  the  action  of  water. 
Similar  moraines  to  those  found  in  this  country  are 
met  with  in  Armenia,  Syria,  and  Scotland. 

The  magnitude  of  bowlders,  which  have  evidently 
been  transported  hundreds  of  miles,  is  sometimes  enor- 
mous. One,  of  which  a  pedestal  was  formed  for  the 
statue  of  Peter  the  Great,  is  said  to  have  weighed 
fifteen  hundred  tons. .  The  Needle  Mountain  in  Dau- 
phiny,  said  to  be  a  bowlder,  is  described  as  being  one 
thousand  paces  in  circumference  at  the  bottom,  and 
two  thousand  at  the  top.  Mention  is  also  made  of 
a  block  of  granite  near  Neufchatel,  in  Switzerland, 
forty  feet  high,  fifty  feet  long,  and  twenty  feet  broad, 
which  weighs  three  millions  eight  hundred  thousand 
pounds,  and  contains  ten  thousand  two  hundred  and 
ninety-six  cubic  feet.  The  rock  of  Horeb,  which  the 
monks  point  out  as  the  one  struck  by  Moses  at  the 
command  of  God,  and  out  of  which  gushed  forth 
water,  is  a  bo  wider  of  granite  six  yards  square,  and 
contains  five  thousand  eight  hundred  and  twenty-three 
cubic  feet  It  lies  in  the  plain  near  Mount  Sinai,  and 
probably  once  belonged  to  the  mountain,  whence  it 
may  have  fallen  by  its  own  weight. 

Great  numbers  of  bowlders  occur  in  this  country, 
sometimes  thirty  feet  square,  and  containing  twenty- 
seven  thousand  cubic  feet,  and  weighing  not  less  than 
two  thousand  three  hundred  and  ten  tons.  One  is 
mentioned  at  Fall  River,  formed  of  conglomerate, 
which  weighs  five  thousand  four  hundred  tons,  or  ten 
million  eight  hundred  thousand  pounds. 

In  the  drift  of  the  northern  hemisphere  have  been 


102  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

discovered  the  remains  of  a  variety  of  animals,  mostly 
such  as  live  in  tropical  climates.  Of  these  there  are 
not  less  than  one  hundred  species,  of  which  half  are 
extinct.  These  facts  seem  to  show  that  the  climate  in 
these  countries  was  once  much  warmer  than  at  present, 
and  when  the  action  of  the  ice  commenced,  it  must 
have  taken  place  suddenly  ;  for  sometimes  the  animals 
are  found  undecayed,  having  evidently  been  wrapped 
almost  instantaneously  in  the  ice. 

The  appearance  of  many  rocks  in  the  drift  regions 
is  often  very  remarkable,  as  they  bear  marks  of  having 
been  smoothed,  rounded,  scratched,  and  furrowed, 
apparently  by  the  action  of  the  masses  borne  along  by 
the  icebergs.  Many  instances  of  these  peculiarities 
are  mentioned,  as  having  been  met  with  on  mountains, 
at  elevations  of  two  or  three  thousand  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  These  scratches,  or  stria,  as  they 
are  called,  often  run  directly  across  the  strata,  and  ap- 
pear as  parallel  lines.  Sometimes  there  are  two  or 
more  sets,  one  crossing  the  other. 

The  mountains  of  many  northern  countries  show 
their  northern  and  northwestern  sides  to  be  worn  and 
rounded.  This  is  the  case  in  Sweden,  as  well  as  in 
New  England.  Professor  Hitchcock  cites  Mount  Mo- 
nadnock,  in  New  Hampshire,  as  an  instance  of  this, 
which  is  the  more  striking  because  it  is  mostly  naked 
rock.  He  adds,  the  surface  of  the  mountain  is  very 
uneven,  but  the  protuberances  are  nearly  all  rounded, 
and  few  are  left  angular  except  on  the  southeastern  side. 
The  axis  of  the  intervening  hollows  usually  corresponds 
nearly  to  the  direction  of  the  striae,  so  that  the  sur- 
face appears  like  the  swell  of  the  ocean  after  a  storm. 


DRIFT,    OR   DILUVIUM.  103 

Viewed  in  a  certain  direction,  these  swells  appear  like 
domes. 

Similar  rocks  are  seen  on  the  top  of  the  White 
Mountains,  and  even  within  twelve  hundred  feet  of  the 
summit  of  the  highest  peak,  —  Mount  Washington, — 
which  is  over  six  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  The  tops  of  .the  mountains,  instead  of  being 
merely  scratched,  are  sometimes  ploughed  up  in  fur- 
rows, evidently  by  the  action  of  ice  and  water.  These 
furrows  are  quite  parallel,  and  correspond  to  the  course 
which  has  been  taken  by  the  drift. 

Another  circumstance  respecting  drift,  which  deserves 
to  be  noted,  is,  that  in  some  cases  it  has  been  carried 
from  a  lower  to  a  higher  level.  Bowlders  are  found 
thus  transferred  ;  the  strise  are  sometimes  seen  com- 
mencing at  the  lower  level,  and  the  rounding  of  the 
rocks  indicates  the  same  course. 

Clay  is  not  unfrequently  discovered  above  the  drift  in 
the  larger  valleys,  showing  that  they  were  once  filled 
with  water  by  the  melting  of  the  ice,  and  as  if  they  were 
lakes  in  which  deposits  were  made  above  the  body  of 
the  drift,  while  the  waters  were  wearing  away  passages 
through  the  mass  of  ruins  of  other  rocks  and  earth. 
Sometimes  these  deposits  are  from  one  to  two  hun- 
dred feet  thick.  It  is  not  easy  to  say  where  the  ac- 
tion of  the  ice  terminated,  and  where  that  of  alluvial 
deposits  began.  The  action  of  the  ice  is  exhibited  in 
certain  cases  by  the  horizontal  fissures  which  have 
been  produced,  as  well  as  by  the  driving  of  the  upright 
strata  from  their  perpendicular  direction.  Examples 
are  found,  which  indicate  that  the  force  which  thus 
crushed  the  top  of  a  hill  and  bent  the  strata  must  have 
been  very  great. 


104  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

The  phenomena  of  drift  have  been  accounted  for  in 
different  ways.  They  were  formerly  referred  to  the 
powerful  action  of  currents  of  water  ;  and  the  effects 
were  ascribed  to  the  Noachian  deluge.  But  the  facts, 
that  the  remains  of  man  are  not  found  in  it,  that  the  re- 
mains of  animals  found  are  of  extinct  species,  and  that 
the  period  of  the  deluge  is  too  short  for  the  purpose, 
have  induced  the  ablest  geologists  to  set  aside  this 
theory. 

The  Iceberg  theory  has  been  a  favorite  one  with 
some  eminent  geologists.  This,  as  its  title  indicates, 
imputes  most  of  the  phenomena  of  drift  to  icebergs, 
carried  southerly  by  the  currents  of  the  ocean,  while 
the  continents  where  drift  occurs  were  yet  beneath 
the  ocean.  As  these  were  gradually  raised  from  the 
deep,  the  mountains,  which  would  form  islands,  would 
send  down  glaciers  to  their  shores,  and  thus  masses  of 
ice  would  be  broken  off,  to  be  floated  away,  loaded  with 
detritus.  In  many  places,  large  bodies  of  water  would 
remain  after  the  ocean  had  retired,  in  which  deposits 
of  clay  and  sand  would  take  place. 

In  support  of  this,  theory,  it  is  said,  that,  in  high 
northern  and  southern  latitudes,  the  process  which  this 
theory  assumes  is  daily  going  on.  Icebergs  frequently 
transport  towards  the  equator  blocks  of  great  size, 
which  are  dropped  upon  the  bottom  of  the  ocean. 
Mr.  Scoresby  saw  upon  several  icebergs,  in  latitude 
70°  N.,  masses  of  earth  and  rock,  weighing  from 
fifty  thousand  to  one  hundred  thousand  tons ;  and 
a  deposit  of  drift  is  now  actually  accumulating  in 
the  southern  hemisphere,  in  latitudes  no  higher  than 
Northern  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  England.  It  is  also 


DRIFT,   OR    DILUVIUM.  105 

urged,  that  there  is  evidence  daily  accumulating  of  the 
existence  of  a  much  lower  temperature  in  northern 
latitudes,  when  the  drift  was  depositing,  than  is  now 
found  in  the  same  latitudes ;  and,  therefore,  glaciers 
might  have  existed  in  much  lower  latitudes  than  at 
present ;  and  icebergs  might  have  been  carried  nearer 
to  the  equator  than  they  now  are,  before  melting. 

Some  serious  objections  are  urged  against  this  the- 
ory, and  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  does  not  explain  all 
the  phenomena  that  have  been  observed  and  recorded. 

The  Glacier  theory,  which  has  many  advocates, 
supposes,  that,  at  the  close  of  the  tertiary  period,  a  sud- 
den reduction  took  place  in  the  temperature  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  globe,  whereby  all  organic  life  was  destroyed ; 
and,  in  high  latitudes  at  least,  glaciers  were  found  on 
mountains  of  moderate  altitude  ;  indeed,  that  vast  sheets 
of  ice  were  spread  over  almost  the  entire  surface,  ex- 
tending south  as  far  as  the  phenomena  of  drift  have  been 
observed.  The  northern  regions,  especially  around 
the  poles,  are  supposed  to  have  formed  one  vast  sea  of 
ice,  which  sent  out  its  enormous  glaciers  in  a  southerly 
direction  by  the  force  of  expansion ;  and  the  advance 
and  retreat  of  these  glaciers  accumulated  the  moraines, 
and  produced  the  striae  and  embossed  appearances 
upon  the  rocks.  When  the  temperature  was  raised, 
the  melting  of  the  immense  sheet  of  ice  produced  vast 
currents  of  water,  which  would  lift  up  and  bear  along 
huge  icebergs  loaded  with  detritus,  and  thus  scatter 
bowlders  over  wide  surfaces.  The  blocking  up  of 
gorges  by  moraines  would  form  lakes  and  ponds,  in 
which  clay  and  sand,  such  as  now  lie  above  the  drift, 
might  have  been  deposited ;  and  afterwards  the  barriers 


106  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

of  these  lakes,  consisting  of  loose  matter,  may  have 
been  cut  through,  and  the  waters  gradually  drained  off, 
while  they  assumed  their  present  levels.  In  some  parts 
of  the  world,  the  elevation  of  mountains,  —  as  the  Alps, 
for  instance,  —  during  the  same  period,  might  have  in- 
creased the  effects  that  have  been  described. 

The  perfectly  preserved  elephants  and  rhinoceroses 
of  Siberia,  in  frozen  mud,  show  that  the  change  of 
climate  there  must  have  been  very  sudden  from  quite 
warm  to  intense  cold.  The  general  absence  of  organ- 
ic remains  in  the  clay  and  sand  lying  above  the  drift 
makes  it  probable,  that,  during  their  deposition,  the  cli- 
mate was  too  cold  to  favor  the  existence  of  animals 
and  plants,  while  the  highly  arctic  character  of  the  few 
species  of  shells  that  have  been  found  in  these  depos- 
its in  New  York,  Canada,  Scotland,  Sweden,  and  Rus- 
sia, confirms  this  conclusion. 

The  historjr  of  the  effects  of  glaciers  is  the  history 
of  the  phenomena  of  drift  in  miniature.  In  the  first 
place,  the  moraines  of  glaciers  correspond  to  the  ac- 
cumulations of  drift  that  are  so  common  in  northern 
regions.  The  latter  are,  indeed,  somewhat  modified, 
partly  by  subsequent  agency,  and  partly  by  a  some- 
what different  mode  of  production,  so  that  the  several 
varieties  of  moraines  accompanying  glaciers  are  not 
always  to  be  distinguished.  Secondly,  the  smoothing, 
rounding,  and  polishing  of  the  rocks  are  the  same  be- 
neath the  glaciers  as  over  the  whole  northern  hemi- 
sphere. Thirdly,  the  parallel  striae  upon  their  surfaces 
are  perfectly  explained  by  the  passage  of  ice  over 
them  in  unbroken  sheets,  with  angular  fragments  fixed 
into  their  lower  surface.  Fourthly,  the  parallel  fur- 


DRIFT,   OR    DILUVIUM.  107 

rows  and  valleys  produced  by  the  agency  under  con- 
sideration upon  the  crests  and  sides  of  steep  mountains 
are  very  analogous  to  those  beneath  the  glaciers,  the 
result  of  the  joint  action  of  ice  and  water.  Fifthly, 
this  same  joint  action  may  have  transported  bowlders 
to  great  distances,  and  lodged  them  upon  precipitous 
ridges  and  on  sandy  plains.  Finally,  these  effects  are 
inexplicable  by  currents  alone. 

This  theory  furnishes  an  adequate  agency  for 
smoothing  and  furrowing  the  slopes  of  mountains,  and 
for  the  transportation  of  drift  from  lower  to  higher 
levels  by  an  ascending  force ;  facts  more  difficult  to 
explain  than  almost  any  other  phenomenon  connected 
with  drift.  This  might  have  been  both  by  the  expan- 
sive force  of  ice,  pushing  one  extremity  of  the  sheet 
up  the  hill,  and  by  water  lifting  up  icebergs  with  de- 
tritus from  the  bottoms  of  the  valleys,  and,  as  it  rose, 
carrying  them  to  higher  levels.  It  shows  how  depos- 
its of  clay  and  sand  might  have  been  formed  above 
the  coarse  detritus  in  lakes  produced  by  the  moraines 
and  melting  of  the  ice,  and  how  their  barriers  af- 
terwards might  have  been  removed.  It  gives  a  rea- 
son why  those  clays  and  sands  are  so  destitute  of  or- 
ganic remains,  namely,  a  cold  climate.  It  provides  an 
agent  sufficiently  powerful  to  break  down  the  tops  of 
ledges  of  rocks,  as  appears  to  have  been  done,  at  least 
in  a  few  instances,  in  New  England,  by  an  enormous 
force  operating  obliquely  downwards  in  connection  with 
the  formation  of  drift.  The  expansion  and  great 
weight  of  a  huge  sheet  of  ice  might  exert  a  force  upon 
obstacles  almost  irresistible. 

It  must  be  admitted,  that  objections  lie  against  this 


108  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

theory,  also  ;  and  Professor  Hitchcock,  from  whom  we 
have  taken  these  views,  concludes  by  remarking,  that 
probably  the  true  philosophy  of  drift  will  be  found  in  a 
union  of  the  iceberg  and  glacier  theories.  It  may  be 
proper  to  add,  that  other  modes  of  accounting  for  the 
various  phenomena  presented  by  the  drift  formation 
have  been  suggested ;  but  those  we  have  mentioned 
appear  to  be  the  most  rational,  and  to  be  maintained  by 
the  highest  authorities. 


TERTIARY    FORMATION. 

THE  next  strata,  according  to  the  arrangement  we 
have  adopted,  is  the  tertiary.  This  corresponds  with 
the  supercretaceous  group  of  De  la  Beche,  and,  with 
that  of  drift,  with  Mr.  Lyell's  tertiary  period. 

The  tertiary  rocks  have  been  divided  into  four  dis- 
tinct groups  of  marine  strata,  distinguished  by  the  pe- 
culiarities of  their  organic  remains.  These,  which  are 
also  separated  from  each  other  by  strata  which  con- 
tain fresh-water  and  terrestrial  remains,  have  been 
named  eocene,  miocene,  and  older  and  new  pliocene. 
In  the  eocene,  —  which  lies  at  the  bottom,  and  hence 
is  called  the  earliest,  —  the  number  of  shells,  of  which 
similar  living  species  are  found,  is  only  about  three 
fifths  per  cent. ;  in  the  miocene,  it  is  seventeen  per 
cent. ;  in  the  older  pliocene,  thirty-five  to  fifty  per 
cent. ;  and  in  the  newer  pliocene,  ninety  to  ninety-five 
per  cent. 

The  tertiary  rocks  are  usually  stratified  ;  the  layers 


TERTIARY    FORMATION.  109 

being  horizontal.  Sometimes,  however,  they  incline  at 
a  large  angle.  The  manner  in  which  the  materials  of 
which  they  are  formed  are  disposed  indicates  very 
clearly  that  they  were  originally  deposited  by  water. 
The  strata  are  parallel,  and  the  materials  are  clay, 
sandstone,  and  carbonate  of  lime ;  which  facts  corre- 
spond with  what  is  now  observed  respecting  the  agency 
of  water. 

There  are  two  processes  by  which  rocks  are  depos- 
ited by  water;  the  first,  mechanical  or  sedimentary, — 
that  is,  formed  by  the  mere  subsidence  of  materials  from 
mechanical  action  and  gravity ;  the  second,  chemical, 
the  materials  being  precipitated  in  a  state  of  solution. 
The  lower  we  descend,  in  general,  the  less  we  find  of 
the  mechanical,  and  the  more  of  the  chemical  deposits. 
In  the  rocks  which  contain  fossils  there  is  sometimes 
found  an  alternation  of  the  two  kinds  of  deposits,  but 
in  general  they  seem  to  have  been  both  going  on  at 
the  same  time.  In  order  to  be  consolidated,  rocks 
generally  require  more  or  less  of  chemical  agency  :  but 
in  the  tertiary  rocks  the  mechanical  agency  predom- 
inates, though  there  are  beds  of  gypsum,  limestone, 
and  rock-salt  formed  by  chemical  solution. 

In  the  tertiary  strata  a  great  variety  of  rocks  are 
found,  as  the  concretionary,  the  tufaceous,  argillaceous, 
and  silicious;  or  limestone,  marl,  plastic  clay,  sili- 
cious  and  calcareous  sands,  green  sand,  gypsum,  lig- 
nite, rock-salt,  and  mill-stone  or  burr-stone. 

The  deposits  of  the  tertiary  formation  are  of  im- 
mense extent,  and  great  diversity  of  feature  and  quality. 
Some  are  Jhtviate,  formed  by  rivers  ;  some  lacustrine, 
formed  in  lakes ;  some  are  marine,  and  some  vol- 


110  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

canic.  Many  of  the  wonders  of  the  tertiary  period 
will  be  considered  hereafter,  and  the  peculiar  features 
of  the  strata  may  then  be  more  fully  illustrated.  We 
may  here  sum  up  the  general  characteristics  of  the 
system,  in  the  words  of  Richardson,  as  follows : 

1.  They  are  all  deposited   in  hollows    or   depres- 
sions, usually  of  chalk,  and  occasionally  of  older  rocks. 

2.  They  evince  proofs  of  important  changes  in  the 
relative  level  of  land  and  sea,  during  that  period  of  the 
history  of  the  earth  in  which  they  were  deposited. 

3.  They  afford  like  evidence,  that,  during  the  same 
epoch,  the  central  part  of  Europe  was  the  site  of  enor- 
mous lakes,  which,  at  the  present  day,  have  no  analogy 
in  that  part  of  the  globe,  but  which  have  their  type  in 
the  vast  lakes  of  the  American  continent. 

4.  They  likewise  show  that  volcanic  agency  was 
developed,  at  this  period  of  nature's  history,  on  a  vast 
and  magnificent  scale. 

5.  They  testify  the  gradual  refrigeration  which  took 
place  during  this  era,  and  the  approximation,  consequent 
on  the  change  of  climate,  to  the  forms  of  vegetable  and 
animal  life  prevailing  at  the  present  day.     Thus,  while 
the    dicotyledonous  plants   first  assume    their  present 
preponderance  in  these  deposits,  animals  of  the  class 
mammalia,  that  is,  such  as  give  suck  to  their  young, 
first  appear  in  any  numbers  on  our  ear£h. 

6.  Finally,  owing  to  their  position   at  the  surface, 
and  their  having  undergone  less  pressure  than  the  rocks 
beneath,   they  constitute   a   vast   depository  of  fossil 
shells,  which  are  preserved  in  such  number  and  per- 
fection, as  to  form  a  scale  by  which  the  relative  age 
of  these  formations  is  usually  determined. 


SECONDARY  ROCKS.  Ill 


SECONDARY  ROCKS. 

UNDER  the  secondary  rocks  may  be  included  all  the 
strata  in  which  fossils  are  found,  below  the  tertiary. 
Some  writers  prefer  to  retain  the  distinction  of  transi- 
tion ;  though  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
where  the  transition  should  commence,  some  beginning 
it  at  the  coral  formation,  some  with  the  carboniferous 
limestone,  others  with  the  old  red  sandstone,  and  yet 
others  with  the  grauwacke. 

The  secondary  formation  comprises  a  number  of 
very  important  systems,  which,  in  their  turn,  admit  of 
numerous  subdivisions.  The  cretaceous  system,  most 
commonly  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  chalk,  is 
said  to  be  wanting  in  our  country  ;  but  the  ferruginous 
sand  formation  here  is  deemed  its  equivalent.  Chalk, 
which  is  a  species  of  carbonate  of  lime,  is  remarkable, 
in  some  of  its  beds,  for  the  great  quantity  of  flints 
which  are  dispersed  through  it,  generally  in  a  parallel 
position. 

Dr.  Tilton  has  divided  the  cretaceous  system  into 
chalk,  green  sand,  and  wealden.  Green  sand  is  mixed 
with  a  green  substance,  much  resembling  chlorite,  or 
green  earth.  The  wealden  formation  derives  its  name 
from  its  being  found  chiefly  in  the  wealds,  or  woods, 
of  Sussex  and  Kent,  in  England.  It  is  said  to  be  com- 
posed of  beds  of  limestone,  conglomerate,  sandstone, 
and  clay,  and  to  abound  in  remains  of  fresh-water 
and  terrestrial  animals,  that  have  been  deposited  in 
an  estuary  which  once  occupied  that  part  of  England. 

The  oolitic  system  is  the  second  embraced  under  the 


112  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

secondary  formation.  This  is  so  called,  because  in 
many  of  the  rocks  are  found  imbedded  small  calcare- 
ous globules,  resembling  the  roe  or  spawn  of  fish. 
The  rock  is  therefore  named  oolite,  or  sometimes  roe- 
stone.  Such  a  structure,  however,  is  not  confined  to 
this  rock ;  nor  does  it  extend  through  the  whole  of  this 
system.  Other  strata,  as  layers  of  clay,  sandstone, 
marl,  and  limestone,  are  found  between  the  series  of 
oolitic  rocks.  The  lowest  of  the  oolitic  group  is  called 
lias,  and  consists  of  argillaceous  limestone. 

The  saliferous  system  belongs  also  to  the  secondary 
formation.  This  is  composed  of  rocks  which  have 
sometimes  a  slaty  and  sometimes  a  conglomerate 
structure,  with  fine  sandstones,  stratified  with  each 
other  in  endless  variety.  These  rocks  are,  in  compo- 
sition, silicious,  argillaceous,  or  calcareous,  and  are 
often  highly  charged  with  the  red  oxide  of  iron. 

The  carboniferous  system  embraces  three  extensive 
deposits,  the  coal  measures,  carboniferous  limestone, 
and  old  red  sandstone. 

The  vast  extent  of  the  coal  formation  may  be  con- 
ceived, when  it  is  stated,  that  in  England  not  less  than 
six  millions  of  tons  are  annually  raised  from  the  mines 
of  Northumberland  and  Durham.  At  this  rate,  they 
will  be  exhausted  in  two  hundred  and  fifty  years.  In 
South  Wales  there  is  said  to  be  a  coal-field  embracing 
twelve  hundred  square  miles,  with  twenty-three  beds, 
ninety-five  feet  thick,  which  will  supply  coal  for  two 
thousand  years,  at  the  present  rate  of  mining.  The 
number  of  steam-engines  put  in  operation  by  the  use 
of  coal  in  Great  Britain  is  stated  to  be  fifteen  thousand, 
by  which  a  power  is  supplied  equal  to  that  of  two  mil- 


SECONDARY    EOCKS.  113 

lions  of  men.  The  whole  machinery  thus  moved  by 
this  power  is  supposed  to  be  equal  to  three  or  four 
hundred  millions  of  men,  by  direct  labor. 

In  Pennsylvania,  in  1837,  not  less  than  nine  hundred 
thousand  tons  of  coal  were  carried  to  market  from  the 
mines  in  that  State  alone.  No  one  can  form  an  ade- 
quate idea  of  the  quantity  of  this  mineral  existing  there. 
The  bituminous  coal-field,  embracing  the  western  part 
of  Pennsylvania  and  a  part  of  Ohio,  extends  over  an 
area  of  twenty-four  thousand  square  miles.  These 
measures  can  probably  be  traced  almost  continuously 
from  Pennsylvania  to  the  Mississippi,  and  even  into  Mis- 
souri, two  hundred  miles  west  of  that  river.  Coal  also 
exists  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  considerations  respect- 
ing these  immense  beds  of  coal  is,  that  they  are  now 
universally  admitted  to  be  nothing  more  than  vegetable 
matter,  converted  into  its  present  state  by  heat  and 
pressure  ;  that  they  are,  in  short,  the  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tion of  the  ancient  earth,  which,  ages  ago,  was  buried 
beneath  the  waters,  either  where  it  grew,  or  at  the 
mouths  of  estuaries,  to  which  it  was  borne  by  floods. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  deposited  in  places  alter- 
nately occupied  by  fresh  and  salt  waiter,  where,  under 
the  heat  generated  by  moisture,  and  the  presence  of 
the  slime,  mud,  and  clay  deposited  above,  the  vegeta- 
ble masses  have  been  elaborated  into  coal. 

This  theory  may  be  sustained  by  very  clear  proofs. 
Vegetable  matter  in  similar  circumstances  of  moisture 
and  pressure  is  known  to  ferment,  and  produce  sponta- 
neous combustion.  Thus,  if  hay  be  closely  packed 
while  moist,  it  ferments,  takes  fire,  and  is  consumed. 
8 


114  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

If,  however,  the  fire  be  interrupted,  and  combustion  be 
prevented,  the  hay  is  found  to  have  acquired  a  dark 
brown  color,  a  glazed  or  oily  surface,  and  a  bituminous 
odor.  The  same  facts  have  been  observed  in  the  case 
of  flax.  Now,  were  vegetable  matter  in  a  moistened 
condition  placed  under  pressure  so  as  to  prevent  the 
gaseous  principle  from  escaping,  bitumen,  lignite,  or 
coal  would  be  produced,  according  to  the  various  stages 
of  the  process.  Professor  Goppert,  of  Berlin,  to  test 
this  point,  having  observed  that  the  leaf  in  iron-stone 
nodules  might  occasionally  be  separated  in  the  form  of 
carbonaceous  flint,  placed  fern  leaves  in  clay,  dried 
them  in  the  sun  or  air,  exposed  them  to  a  red  heat,  and 
thus  obtained  a  striking  resemblance  to  fossil  plants. 
According  to  the  degree  of  heat,  the  plant  had  become 
brown,  shining,  or  black,  or  was  entirely  lost,  leaving 
only  the  impression. 

Dr.  Lyell,  alluding  to  the  vegetable  origin  of  coal, 
remarks,  that,  after  cutting  a  slice  of  coal  so  thin  that 
it  should  transmit  light,  it  was  found,  that  in  many  parts 
of  the  pure  and  solid  coal,  in  which  geologists  had  no 
suspicion  that  they  should  be  able  to  detect  any  veg- 
etable structure,  not  only  were  annular  rings  of  the 
growth  of  several  kinds  of  trees  beautifully  distinct, 
but  even  the  medullary  rays,  and,  what  is  still  more 
remarkable,  in  some  cases  even  the  spiral  vessels,  could 
be  discerned. 

The  inference  has  also  been  drawn,  from  numerous 
facts,  that  the  carboniferous  formation  of  Europe  and 
America  is  made  up  of  comparatively  recent  plants,  — 
though  still  at  a  remote  period.  In  the  first  place,  the 
boughs  and  leaves  of  ferns  are  most  frequently  and 


SECONDARY    ROCKS.  115 

strikingly  met  with.  So  perfectly  are  they  preserved, 
that  the  species  may  be  designated  by  attending  to  the 
veining  of  the  'leaves.  At  least  one  hundred  species 
have  been  thus  determined.  The  most  numerous  of 
these  are  what  are  called  sigillaria,  or  tree  ferns. 
The  stems  are  fluted  vertically,  and  on  the  flutings 
are  places  indicating  where  the  leaf  adhered.  They 
have  never  been  found  with  the  leaf  attached,  but  in 
the  same  beds  are  loose  leaves,  which  have  no  trunks. 
•What  is  also  worthy  of  notice  is,  that  the  tree  ferns 
are  known  to  be  only  the  productions  of  a  climate  far 
warmer  and  more  humid  than  that  where  coal  is  now 
found ;  for  it  is  discovered  even  as  far  north  as  Mel- 
ville's Island  and  Baffin's  Bay.  The  same  remarks  ap- 
ply also  to  certain  species  of  the  fir  tribe,  and  other 
plants,  found  in  coal ;  from  which  Dr.  Lyell  infers, 
that  the  climate  in  the  frigid  zones  must  have  been 
much  warmer  and  more  moist  than  it  now  is  in  any 
part  of  the  globe. 

Of  the  two  theories  respecting  the  formation  of  coal 
beds,  Dr.  Lyell  seems  to  lean  to  that  which  attributes 
the  accumulation  of  these  large  beds  of  coal  to  the 
growth  on  the  spot,  rather  than  to  the  principle  of  drift. 
He  states  many  interesting  facts  which  sustain  this  hy- 
pothesis, and  which  have  been  found  to  occur  both  in 
Europe  and  this  country.  Mr.  Richardson  adopts  the 
same  conclusion,  and  states,  as  an  objection  to  the  drift 
origin,  that  the  coal  in  that  case  would  have  been 
mixed  with  foreign  substances,  which  is  not  the  fact. 
The  uniform  thickness  of  each  coal  seam  presents 
another  difficulty.  By  being  washed  away,  the  vege- 
table matter  deposited  would  have  been  found  dis- 


116  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

posed  in  unequal  layers,  heaps,  and  hillocks,  which 
is  far  from  being  the  fact.  The  great  minuteness, 
too,  of  many  of  the  seams  forbids  the  supposition  of 
so  violent  action  as  that  which  the  drift  theory  supposes. 
The  enormous  depth  of  many  of  the  seams  is  like- 
wise considered  an  insurmountable  objection.  Some 
of  these  are  of  fifty  or  sixty  feet  in  thickness. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  bulk  of  substances  may  be 
greatly  reduced  by  pressure.  On  one  occasion,  a  mass 
of  rubbish,  which  was  left  in  a  worn-out  vein  of  iron- 
stone for  two  years  only,  was  in  that  time  reduced 
from  seven  to  not  more  than  two  feet  in  thickness, 
and  to  so  hard  a  substance,  as  to  present  one  mass  of 
rock,  which  required  blasting  to  break  it.  Now,  con- 
sidering the  immense  mass  of  vegetable  matter  re- 
quired for  the  coal  formation,  —  for  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  it  has  been  under  pressure  much  more 
likely  to  affect  it,  from  its  compressibility,  than  mineral 
rubbish,  —  and  this,  too,  not  of  a  few  yards,  but  of 
many  thousand  feet,  and  during  countless  ages,  —  it 
is  evident  that  an  adequate  supply  could  not  be  trans- 
ported by  the  action  of  water  sufficient  to  form 
such  beds.  The  high  state  of  preservation  in  which 
many  of  the  objects  occur ;  the  perfect  condition  of 
the  leaves,  and  other  parts  of  many  of  the  ferns  ;  the 
preservation  of  the  sharp  angles  of  numerous  stems 
of  plants  known  to  be  of  a  soft  and  juicy  nature, 
with  the  surfaces  of  the  sigillaria,  especially,  marked 
with  lines,  streaks,  and  flutings  so  delicate,  that  the 
mere  drifting  of  a  day  would  have  inevitably  destroyed 
them ;  together  with  the  occurrence  of  certain  fruits 
which  are  found  in  heaps  and  clusters;  with  many 


SECONDARY   ROCKS.  117 

other  facts  of  a  like  nature,  and  leading  to  similar  con- 
clusions, —  convince  us  that  these  objects  have  never 
been  subjected  to  drift,  but  were  buried  on  the  spots 
where  they  lived  and  flourished.  Another  fact  is 
urged,  founded  on  a  chemical  view  of  the  subject; 
which  is,  that,  if  vegetable  matter  were  swept  away  by 
a  flood,  such  an  agency,  by  allowing  the  gaseous 
particles  to  escape,  would  never  be  adequate  to  pro- 
duce the  desired  results.  We  may  add,  that  the  close 
analogy  presented  by  peat  to  lignite  and  coal  affords 
a  striking  corroboration  of  the  justice  of  this  view. 

Another  circumstance,  alleged  as  conclusive  against 
the  idea  of  transport,  is  the  multiplied  instances  of  trees 
found  erect  on  the  spot  where  they  grew.  Sometimes 
not  less  than  forty  of  these,  standing  a  few  feet 
apart,  and  in  short  forming  a  perfect  fossil  forest,  have 
been  discovered.  These,  being  merely  the  discoveries 
of  chance  cuttings,  and  of  observations  of  very  limited 
extent,  lead  to  the  conclusion,  that  the  earth  contains 
innumerable  forests  entombed  on  the  spots  where  they 
grew. 

In  consequence  of  the  investigations  already  made, 
the  conclusion  has  been  formed,  which,  as  stated  by 
Mr.  Richardson,  is  in  substance  as  follows.  It  is 
conceived  that  the  vegetation  which  produced  coal 
grew  in  broad  and  shallow  lagoons  and  sheets  of 
water,  receiving  at  intervals  deposits  of  silt  and  mud, 
the  rubbish  of  neighbouring  lands,  and  situated  on  an 
island  or  seashore.  These  streams  were  speedily 
filled  up  by  the  growth  of  a  profusion  of  stigmaria,  a 
marshy,  juicy  plant,  until,  by  the  accumulation  of  mud, 
silt,  sand,  and  the  mixture  of  decayed  vegetable  matter, 


118  STRATIFIED    KOCKS. 

the  lagoon  was  converted  into  a  morass.  A  fresh 
vegetable  growth  now  followed,  of  reedlike  plants,  the 
equisetce  and  calamites,  with  here  and  there  a  larger 
tree.  The  spoils  of  these  plants  may  thus  have  fur- 
nished materials  for  beds  of  peat,  and  of  coal  resting 
on  a  base  composed  entirely  of  the  remains  of  stigma- 
rice.  These  spots  may,  by  repeated  subsidences,  have 
been  so  reduced  beneath  the  level  of  the  sea,  as  to 
have  rendered  them  the  receptacles  of  alternating  de- 
posits of  sand  and  clay,  and  may  thus  have  produced 
the  strata  of  limestone  which  occur  between  seams  of 
coal.  As  each  deposit  was  formed,  it  may  have  been 
covered,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  by  a  lagoon,  when 
the  succession  of  vegetable  growth  and  earthy  de- 
posit may  have  followed,  and  fresh  supplies  of  miner- 
al fuel  may  have  been  produced. 

The  alternation  of  beds  of  coal  with  marine  de- 
posits is  explained  by  the  supposition,  that  an  exten- 
sive subsidence  of  the  estuaries,  which  were  the  site 
of  the  lacustrine  and  terrestrial  vegetation  above  de- 
scribed, may  have  reduced  these  estuaries  beneath  the 
level  of  the  sea,  where  the  submerged  soil  with  its 
vegetation  was  covered  with  accumulations  of  en- 
crinital  limestone  and  other  marine  sediments,  and 
that,  in  course  of  time,  either  by  drifts  of  sand,  or  clay, 
from  the  land,  or  by  the  elevation  of  the  bed  of  the 
sea,  the  estuaries  were  again  filled,  and  became  the 
area  of  the  vegetable  growth  above  named  ;  while  the 
repetition  of  such  changes  would  account  for  the  alter- 
nation of  marine  and  vegetable  deposits,  which  so 
frequently  occur  in  our  beds  of  coal.  It  is  said,  that 
not  less  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  species  of  ferns, 


SECONDARY    ROCKS.  119 

most  of  them  extinct  species,  have  been  discovered  in 
coal. 

A  peculiarity  of  the  coal  which  is  mentioned,  and-one 
which  in  Europe  greatly  assists  in  working  it,  is  the 
faults  which  constantly  occur  in  the  beds.  These 
are  caused  by  fissures  traversing  the  strata,  extending 
often  for  miles,  and  penetrating  to  a  depth  ascertained 
only  in  a  few  instances.  There  is  usually  a  subsi- 
dence of  strata  on  one  side,  or  an  elevation  on  the 
other,  and  sometimes  the  effect  is  caused  by  both. 
These  breaks  or  dislocations  have  been  produced  by 
violent  mechanical  convulsions  subsequent  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  strata ;  and  as  the  change  of  level  some- 
times exceeds  five  hundred  feet  perpendicular,  the 
power  which  could  move  upward  such  enormous  mas- 
ses must  have  been  very  great. 

SILURIAN  SYSTEM.  — The  next  system  of  the  secondary 
rocks  has  been  called  the  Silurian,  because  it  was  first 
developed  in  a  part  of  England  which  belonged  to  the 
ancient  kingdom  of  the  Silures.  It  embraces  the  upper 
members  of  that  vast  deposit  which  has  been  called  grau- 
wacke,  and  grauwacke  slate,  or  shale.  It  bears  marks 
of  being  of  sedimentary  origin,  as  it  is  sandy,  clayey, 
and  also  characterized  by  the  presence  of  lime.  It  has 
been  subjected  to  a  more  ^powerful  chemical  action 
than  the  rocks  which  lie  above  it.  The  materials  often 
vary  in  fineness,  sometimes  affording  delicate  slates, 
and  others  of  a  coarser  kind,  even  running  into  con- 
glomerates. These  varieties  are  often  found  in  suc- 
cessive strata. 

The  limestone  appears  to  owe  its  origin  more  to 
chemical  than  to  mechanical  action,  and  sometimes 


120  STRATIFIED    BOCKS. 

the  structure  is  crystalline.  The  whole  formation 
abounds  in  organic  remains.  This  system  has  been 
found  not  only  in  England,  which  has  bten  described  by 
Mr.  Murchison  in  two  of  the  most  splendid  quarto  vol- 
umes ever  published  on  geology,  but  also  in  the  United 
States,  in  the  Russian  empire,  in  Sweden,  and  Norway 
CLAY  SLATE  ANDGRAUWACKE  SYSTEM. — This,  whicl 
by  Mr.  Sedgwick  and  some  other  writers,  is  callt~ 
the  Cambrian  system  or  group,  is  found  in  Wales,  a 
deposit  of  vast  thickness,  and  embracing  the  lower  part 
of  the  grauwacke  group  and  clay  slate.  The  whole,  as 
described  by  Professor  Hitchcock,  is  eminently  argil- 
laceous or  clayey,  but  it  greatly  varies  in  fineness,  being 
sometimes  found  of  the  finest  clay  slate,  and  at  other 
times  in  conglomerates,  with  fragments  of  quartz,  feld- 
spar, mica,  jasper,  &c.,  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  The 
cement  which  unites  them,  however,  is  always  argilla- 
ceous. These  conglomerates  are  also  mixed  with  strata 
of  slate,  which  have  been  called  grauwacke  and  clay 
slate.  It  is  by  no  means  certain,  says  Professor  Hitch- 
cock, that  the  Cambrian  system  of  rocks  ought  to  be 
separated  from  the  Silurian ;  for  though  the  organic 
remains  are  quite  different  in  form  from  those  in  the 
latter,  yet  the  number  is  small. 


PRIMARY    STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

THE  last  formation  of  the  stratified  rocks  is  called 
primary.  These  are  seated  below  the  secondary,  and 
comprise  a  variety  of  groups  or  systems,  which  will 


PRIMARY    STRATIFIED    ROCKS.  121 

be  mentioned  in  the  order  adopted  by  Professor 
Hitchock. 

CLAY  SLATE,  OR  ARGILLACEOUS  SLATE.  —  This  rock  is 
composed  of  fine  clayey  matter,  which  has  a  structure 
that  can  be  divided  or  split,  and  is  more  or  less  shining 
on  its  surface.  Its  chief  deposit,  as  before  mentioned, 
belongs  to  the  Cambrian  system  ;  but  it  is  often  found 
in  mingled  strata  with  mica  slate  and  quartz,  and 
on  this  account  must  be  considered  a  primary  rock, 
which  is  not  fossiliferous.  It,  however,  also  occurs  in 
strata  connected  with  the  fossil-bearing  grauwacke.  It 
belongs,  therefore,  both  to  the  strata  that  bear  fossils 
and  those  which  do  not. 

The  farther  we  go  from  the  line  that  divides  these 
two  classes  of  rocks  towards  the  oldest,  the  more  high- 
ly glazed  is  the  clay  slate,  until  it  passes  at  length  in- 
sensibly into  mica,  talcose,  or  hornblende  slate.  But 
in  the  other  direction  the  surface  becomes  more  dull, 
and  the  texture  looser,  until  it  forms  what  is  usually 
termed  shale ;  and  yet  higher  up  it  gradually  changes 
into  unconsolidated  clay.  Among  the  varieties  of  clay 
slate  are  the  whetstone  slate,  and  graphite  or  drawing 
slate,  the  latter  of  which  contains  several  per  cent,  of 
carbon.  The  popular  notion,  that  hones  are  composed 
of  petrified  wood,  is  groundless..  Some  of  the  best 
are  of  compact  feldspar. 

QUARTZ  ROCK.  —  This  consists  essentially  of  quartz, 
either  granular  or  sandy.  The  varieties  are  formed 
by  the  mixture  of  mica,  feldspar,  talc,  hornblende,  or 
clay  slate.  In  these  the  strata  are  very  regular,  but 
in  the  pure  granular  quartz  it  is  often  difficult  to  trace 
the  lines  of  the  strata.  It  mingles  in  layers  with  all 


122  STRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

the  primary  rocks,  as  well  as  with  grauwacke,  and,  in 
this  last  case,  is  said  to  be  decidedly  mechanical  in  its 
structure,  which  feature  also  is  sometimes  to  be  ob- 
served where  it  belongs  to  the  primary  rocks.  The 
sandy  varieties  of  this  rock  are  said  to  bear  a  great 
degree  of  heat,  though  some  specimens  of  mica  sur- 
pass it  in  this  respect. 

HORNBLENDE  SLATE.  —  In  this  rock  hornblende  pre- 
vails, and  some  of  its  varieties  contain  feldspar,  quartz, 
and  mica.  When  it  is  pure  hornblende,  it  often  has  an 
indistinct  mode  of  forming  its  strata,  and,  by  taking 
into  its  composition  feldspar,  it  passes  into  a  rock  like 
greenstone.  It  occurs  in  connection  with  all  the  prima- 
ry rocks,  but  more  commonly  with  clay  slate,  mica 
slate,  and  gneiss. 

TALCOSE  SLATE.  —  Talc  is  an  essential  ingredient 
of  this  rock,  and,  though  occasionally  found  in  a  pure 
state,  yet  it  is  oftener  mixed  with  quartz  and  mica,  and 
sometimes  also  with  limestone,  feldspar,  and  hornblende. 
It  is  likewise  met  with  in  connection  with  clay  slate  or 
with  grauwacke,  but  in  this  country  it  is  usually  found 
with  mica,  and  also,  though  seldom,  with  gneiss.  Some 
of  its  varieties  are  called  chloride  slate,  and  steatite  ;  the 
latter  being  the  stone  used  for  furnaces,  fireplaces,  &c., 
called  soap-stone. 

SERPENTINE.  —  This  rock  is  described  by  most  Eu- 
ropean writers  as  belonging  to  the  unstratified  rocks  ; 
but  Professor  Hitchcock,  while  admitting  that  it  often 
occurs  without  any  parallel  divisions  into  strata,  and  in 
the  form  of  veins,  says,  that  in  the  primitive  regions  of 
New  England  vast  beds  of  it  are  often  distinctly  strati- 
fied. We  place  it,  therefore,  among  both  the  stratified 


PRIMARY    STRATIFIED   ROCKS.  123 

and  the  unstratified  rocks.  He  says,  it  usually  appears 
as  a  metamorphic  rock ;  that  is,  one  which  has  been 
subjected  to  so  high  a  degree  of  heat  as  to  change 
its  character,  and  yet  not  so  great  as  to  destroy  the 
original  marks  of  stratification. 

PRIMARY  LIMESTONE. — This  rock  alternates  with 
the  primary  strata.  By  some  this  characteristic  is  con- 
sidered as  proof  that  limestone  is  primary.  Others, 
however,  make  its  primary  character  to  depend  mainly 
on  its  crystalline  state.  This  kind  of  rock  is  generally 
white  and  crystalline,  and,  on  account  of  its  resembling 
in  appearance  loaf-sugar,  it  is  sometimes  called  sac- 
charine. It  is,  however,  occasionally  found  of  a  dark 
color,  owing  to  its  being  penetrated  by  other  rocks,  as 
also  to  its  being  more  compact. 

Some  writers  have  proposed  to  include  this  lime- 
stone among  the  unstratified  rocks,  because,  when  it 
occurs  in  the  unstratified  class,  and  also  in  some  of  the 
older  stratified  ones,  it  is  often  nearly  or  quite  destitute 
of  stratification.  In  many  cases,  however,  it  is  dis- 
tinctly stratified.  But,  says  Professor  Hitchcock,  look- 
ing at  all  the  facts  on  the  subject,  they  seem  more  sat- 
isfactorily explained  by  supposing  primary  limestone  a 
metamorphic  rock,  like  serpentine,  which  may  there- 
fore be  found  both  stratified  and  unstratified,  than  by 
regarding  it  as  always  unstratified  and  of  igneous 
origin. 

MICA  SLATE.  —  In  this  rock,  which  is  a  mixture  of 
mica  and  quartz,  the  former  predominates.  Garnets 
and  staurotides  are  said  to  be  so  abundant  in  it,  as 
properly  to  be  regarded  constituents;  hence,  mica 
slate  is  distinguished  into  varieties,  as  containing  gar- 
nets or  staurotides. 


124  STKATIFIED   ROCKS. 

GNEISS.  —  Gneiss  is  composed  of  quartz,  feldspar, 
and  mica.  Hornblende,  also,  is  sometimes  found  in  it. 
The  arrangement  of  the  materials  is  more  or  less  in 
thin  plates,  and  the  rock  exhibits  strata.  It  likewise 
passes,  however,  into  granite,  which  is  composed  of 
the  same  ingredients  ;  and  then  the  stratification,  as  well 
as  the  arrangement  in  plates,  becomes  very  obscure, 
and  it  is  impossible  to  draw  a  line  between  these  two. 
Some  specimens  of  gneiss,  as  well  as  mica  slate,  are 
remarkable  for  the  crooked  and  irregular  strata  which 
they  exhibit ;  though,  in  other  places,  the  same  rocks 
are  likewise  distinguished  for  their  regular  and  even 
stratification.  This  last  feature  renders  them  particu- 
larly valuable  for  certain  purposes.  They  are  much 
used  in  some  parts  of  the  country  for  flagging  stones. 
When  gneiss  contains  crystals  of  feldspar,  which  give 
it  a  spotted  appearance,  it  bears  the  name  of  porphy- 
ritic  gneiss ;  and  when  talc  is  found  in  the  place  of 
mica,  it  is  called  protogine. 

Remarks  on  Stratified  Rocks.  —  It  may  be  useful  to 
add  some  general  inferences  respecting  the  stratified 
rocks,  before  we  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  unstratified  rocks. 

One  of  these  is  this.  If  all  stratified  rocks  have 
been  deposited  from  water,  the  layers  must  have  been 
originally  nearly  horizontal.  The  present  inclination 
of  the  deposits  rarely  exceeds  ten  degrees ;  though 
sometimes  the  strata  have  been  affected  by  a  subse- 
quent elevation.  If,  therefore,  we  get  the  perpendic- 
ular thickness  of  a  series  of  strata,  we  may  ascertain, 
as  far  as  that  depth,  the  character  of  the  crust  of  the 
globe. 


tTNSTRATIFIED    ROCKS.  125 

The  total  thickness  of  the  fossil-bearing  strata  in 
Europe  has  thus  been  ascertained  to  be  not  less  than 
six  or  seven  miles.  In  Pennsylvania,  the  fossil-bearing 
rocks  which  lie  below  the  coal  measures  are  forty 
thousand  feet,  or  more  than  seven  and  a  half  miles,  in 
thickness.  In  the  peninsula  of  Tauris,  Pallas  describes 
a  continued  series  of  primary  strata,  inclined  forty-five 
degrees  over  a  distance  of  eighty-six  miles,  which 
would  give  a  perpendicular  thickness  of  more  than 
sixty-eight  miles.  In  New  England,  also,  —  as  we  have 
already  stated,  —  there  are  strata  of  primary  rocks 
nearly  perpendicular,  not  less  than  twenty  miles  in 
thickness.  Thus  we  know  the  general  structure  of  the 
crust  of  the  globe  to  the  depth  of  from  seven  to  sixty- 
eight  miles,  although  artificial  excavations  have  been 
made  in  the  earth  not  more  than  half  a  mile. 


PRIMARY  ROCKS  — UNSTRATIFIED. 

WE  last  of  all  come  to  the  unstratified  rocks.  These 
originally  lie  below  the  rocks  we  have  above  described. 
We  find  among  them  several  varieties,  which  result 
from  two  principal  causes,  —  a  difference  in  their 
chemical  composition,  and  the  different  circumstances 
of  their  production.  The  varieties  insensibly  pass 
into  each  other,  even  in  the  same  mountains.  The 
two  chief  minerals,  however,  in  their  composition,  are 
those  known  as  feldspar  and  augite  or  hornblende. 
Recent  researches  have  rendered  it  probable  that 
these  two  last  named  are  only  varieties,  differing  in 


126  TTNSTRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

crystalline  structure,  &c.,  in  consequence  of  the  differ- 
ence of  cooling  when  melted  more  or  less  rapidly. 

Some  of  the  most  important  of  the  unstratified  rocks 
deserve  a  description. 

GRANITE. — The  chief  materials  of  which  this  rock 
is  composed  are  quartz,  feldspar,  and  mica.  Its  color 
is  most  frequently  gray,  though  often  of  a  flesh-colored 
tinge.  The  ingredients  are  sometimes  very  coarse, 
the  crystalline  fragments  being  a  foot  or  more  in  diam- 
eter, and  at  other  times  scarcely  discernible  by  the 
naked  eye.  Of  course,  between  these  extremes  there 
exists  a  very  great  variety.  The  graphic  granite,  which 
is  composed  of  quartz  and  feldspar,  has  an  arrange- 
ment of  the  quartz,  which  imparts  to  the  surface  of  the 
rock  an  appearance  somewhat  resembling  letters,  from 
which  circumstance  it  derives  its  name. 

SYENITE.  —  This  is  another  of  the  unstratified  rocks. 
It  is  composed  of  feldspar,  quartz,  and  hornblende, — 
the  feldspar  being  the  prevalent  material.  It  is  some- 
times found  compounded  with  mica  also,  and  then  it  is 
called  syenitic  granite.  The  name  was  taken  from 
the  famous  rock  at  Syene,  in  Upper  Egypt,  of  which 
many  celebrated  monuments  were  formed ;  but  this 
has  been  found  to  be  nothing  but  granite  with  black 
mica,  while  that  of  Mount  Sinai  is  composed  of  gen- 
uine syenite  ;  on  which  account  it  has  been  proposed 
by  a  French  geologist  to  substitute  sinaite  for  syenite  ; 
but  this  suggestion,  it  appears,  has  not  been  adopted. 

PORPHYRY. —  Rocks  are  called  porphyry ,  when  they 
are  formed  of  a  compact  earthy  base,  with  similar  par- 
ticles, having  crystalline  masses  disseminated  through 
them,  which  belong  to  the  same  period  as  the  base. 


UNSTRATIFIED    ROCKS.  127 

The  classical  porphyry  referred  to  by  the  ancients  has 
feldspar  for  its  base,  and  compact  feldspar  with  crystals 
of  feldspar  imbedded  in  it.  The  name,  porphyry,  is 
derived  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  purple,  because 
this  was  most  usually  the  color  of  the  ancient  porphy- 
ries;  but  the  rock  exhibits  almost  every  variety  of 
color.  It  is  the  hardest  of  all  rocks ;  and,  when  pol- 
ished, is  probably  the  most  enduring. 

GREENSTONE.  —  There  are  several  unstratified  rocks, 
the  chief  materials  of  which  are  feldspar  and  horn- 
blende or  augite,  and  which  are  called  trap  rocks. 
The  name  is  derived  from  a  Swedish  word  signify- 
ing a  stair,  on  account  of  these  rocks  being  arranged 
like  stairs  or  steps.  Greenstone  most  commonly  con- 
sists of  hornblende  and  feldspar  in  which  hornblende 
predominates.  When  it  is  almost  entirely  greenstone, 
it  is  called  hornblende  rock ;  and  when  the  grains  of 
feldspar  and  hornblende  are  quite  coarse,  it  is  called 
syenitic  greenstone. 

TRACHYTE.  —  Another  unstratified  rock  is  trachyte, 
which  is  of  a  whitish  or  grayish  color.  It  is  usually 
porphyritic,  having  for  its  principal  materials  glassy 
feldspar,  with  hornblende,  mica,  &c.  It  is  called  tra- 
chyte, on  account  of  its  roughness  to  the  touch,  from 
a  Greek  word  signifying  rough.  It  was  an  abundant 
product,  while  volcanic  action  lasted,  in  the  tertiary 
period  ;  and  is  commonly,  to  appearance,  older  than 
basalt,  though  lavas  of  a  similar  description  are  thrown 
out  even  at  the  present  day.  It  is  said  to  constitute 
the  loftiest  summits  of  the  Cordilleras. 

BASALT.  —  This  rock  appears  to  be  composed  of 
augite,  feldspar,  and  what  is  called  titaniferous  iron. 


128  TTNSTRATIFIED   ROCKS. 

Augite,  however,  predominates  over  all  the  others  ; 
though  sometimes  hornblende  takes  its  place.  Basalt 
also  passes  insensibly  into  all  the  other  varieties  of 
trap  rocks. 

AMYGDALOID.  —  This  is  rather  a  particular  form, 
extending  to  the  whole  trap  family,  and  derived  from 
a  Greek  word  signifying  almond.  Like  porphyry,  it  is 
not  confined  to  any  one  species  of  rock.  It  abounds  in 
rounded  hollows,  which  are  filled  up  with  various  min- 
erals, as  calcareous  spar,  quartz,  &c.  Sometimes  they 
are  found  lengthened  to  a  cylindrical  shape  by  the  hot 
melted  matter  flowing  into  them,  so  that  they  are  sev- 
eral inches  long.  When  they  are  not  filled  with  any 
material,  the  rock  is  said  to  be  vesicular. 

The  trap  rocks  are  peculiarly  distinguished  by  be- 
ing found  in  the  form  of  columns,  or  regular  prisms, 
with  from  three  to  eight  sides,  mostly  about  five  or  six, 
and  often  reaching  to  a  great  length,  even  as  much  as 
two  hundred  feet.  These  columns  are  likewise  fre- 
quently jointed,  or  divided  into  separate  blocks,  placed 
one  on  the  top  of  another  ;  the  surface  of  one  being 
concave,  and  the  next  convex,  so  that  they  exactly  fit 
into  each  other.  When  these  columns  stand  upright, 
as  they  often  do,  they  look  as  if  they  had  been  formed 
by  art.  Though  the  blocks  will  cleave  ofF  at  the  joints, 
yet  they  are  so  compactly  united,  that  there  is  no  space 
to  be  perceived  between  them,  or  between  the  differ- 
ent columns.  They  vary  from  three  to  five  feet  in 
thickness.  They  form  what  is  called  the  Giant's 
Causeway,  in  Ireland,  where  they  extend  along  the 
coast  for  many  miles.  Fingal's  Cave,  too,  in  the 
island  of  StafFa,  one  of  the  Western  Isles  of  Scotland, 


ITNSTRATIFTED    ROCKS. 


129 


furnishes  a  remarkable  display  of  scenery  formed  by 
these  basaltic  columns. 

The  whole  island  is  a  complete  mass  of  basalt,  cov- 
ered by  a  thin  layer  of  soil.     It  is  about  two  miles  in 


Island  of  Staff  a. 

circumference,  and  forms  a  table-land  with  an  irregular 
surface,  being  surrounded  on  every  side  by  steep  cliffs, 
about  seventy  feet  high,  which  are  formed  of  clusters  of 
angular  columns,  with  from  three  to  six  or  seven  sides 
each.  It  is  intersected  by  a  deep  gorge,  which  sep- 
arates the  higher  and  more  celebrated  columnar  portion 
from  the  other  division  of  the  island.  At  the  highest 
tides,  the  columns  which  form  the  southwestern  cliffs 
appear  to  terminate  abruptly  in  the  water  ;  but  the  re- 
tiring tide  exposes  a  causeway  of  broken  columns  at 
their  base.  The  greatest  elevation  of  this  island  is 
about  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet,  and  its  surface  is 
covered  with  soil  of  considerable  depth,  clothed  with 


130  UNSTRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

Fingal's  Cave,  first  made  known  to  the  public  in 
1772,  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  is  on  the  southeast  corner 
of  the  island,  and  presents  a  magnificent  chasm  forty- 
two  feet  wide  and  two  hundred  and  twenty-seven  in 
length.  The  roof,  which  is  one  hundred  feet  high  at 
the  entrance,  gradually  diminishes  to  fifty,  and  is  com- 
posed of  the  projecting  extremities  of  basaltic  columns  ; 
the  sides,  of  perpendicular  pillars  ;  and  the  base,  of  a 
causeway  of  the  same  materials.  The  vaulted  arch 
presents  a  singularly  rich  and  varied  effect ;  in  some 
places,  it  is  composed  of  the  ends  of  portions  of  ba- 
saltic pillars,  resembling  a  marble  pavement ;  in  others, 
of  the  rough  surface  of  the  naked  rock ;  while  in 
many,  stalactites  mingle  with  the  pillars  in  the  re- 
cesses, and  add,  by  the  contrast  of  their  colors,  to  the 
pictorial  effect,  which  is  still  further  heightened  by 
the  ever-varying  reflected  light  thrown  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  which  fills  the  bottom  of  the  cave. 

The  depth  of  the  water  is  nine  feet,  and  a  boat  can 
therefore,  in  tolerably  calm  weather,  reach  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  cave ;  but  when  the  boisterous  gales  of  that 
northern  clime  drive  into  the  cavern,  the  agitated  waves, 
dashing  and  breaking  against  the  rocky  sides,  and  their 
roar  echoed  with  increased  power  from  the  roof,  pre- 
sent to  the  eye  and  ear  such  a  scene  of  grandeur 
as  bids  defiance  to  any  description.  The  short  columns 
composing  the  natural  causeway  before  mentioned 
continue  within  the  cave  on  each  side,  and  form  a 
broken  and  irregular  path,  which  allows  a  skilful  and 
fearless  climber  to  reach  the  extremity  of  the  eastern 
side  on  foot ;  but  it  is  a  task  of  danger  at  all  times, 
and  impossible  at  high  tide,  or  in  rough  weather. 


UNSTRATIFIED    ROCKS.  131 

It  would  be  useless  to  attempt  a  description  of  the 
picturesque  effect  of  a  scene,  which  the  pencil  itself 
is  inadequate  to  portray.  But  even  if  this  cave  were 
destitute  of  that  order  and  symmetry,  that  richness 
arising  from  multiplicity  of  parts,  combined  with 
greatness  of  dimension  and  simplicity  of  style,  which 
it  possesses,  —  still,  the  prolonged  length,  the  twilight 
gloom,  half  concealing  the  playful  and  varying  effects 
of  reflected  light,  the  echo  of  the  surge,  as  it  rises 
and  falls,  the  transparent  green  of  the  water,  and  the 
profound  and  fairy  solitude  of  the  whole  scene,  could 
not  fail  strongly  to  impress  a  mind  gifted  with  any 
sense  of  beauty  in  art  or  in  nature. 

The  basalt  of  which  the  columns  are  composed  is 
of  a  dark  greenish-black  hue,  highly  colored  by  iron ; 
a  thin  layer  of  silicious  cement  is  seen  between  the 
joints,  or  articulations,  which  is  called  mortar  by  the 
islanders,  and  strengthens  their  persuasion  that  this 
wonderful  cave  is  the  work  of  art.  Another  cave, 
but  of  inferior  extent,  lies  at  a  short  distance  ;  and  many 
others  of  less  note  are  seen  in  various  parts  of  the 
cliffs,  into  which  the  sea  breaks  with  a  noise  resembling 
that  of  distant  heavy  ordnance. 

The  Giant's  Causeway  forms  a  magnificent  range 
of  basaltic  pillars,  on  the  northern  coast  of  Antrim. 
It  consists  of  an  irregular  group  of  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  pentagonal  jointed  basaltic  columns,  vary- 
ing from  one  to  five  feet  in  thickness,  and  from 
twenty  to  two  hundred  feet  in  height.  The  struc- 
ture of  these  masses,  as  well  as  their  color,  is  the 
same  as  those  already  described.  In  the  cliffs,  a  chasm, 
formed  by  the  inroads  of  the  waves,  presents  a  natural 


132  UNSTHATIFIED   ROCKS. 

cavern,  about  sixty  feet  high,  and  of  great  picturesque 
effect.  The  entrance  is  nearly  thirty  feet  in  width, 
and  the  walls  are  formed  of  dark  basalt  But  the 
chief  interest  of  this  spot,  in  a  geological  point  of 
view,  is  the  altered  structure  observable  in  the  sedi- 
mentary rocks,  wherever  they  have  been  traversed 
by  the  basalt. 

By  an  experiment,  Mr.  Gregory  Watt  proved  very 
conclusively  that  the  columnar  structure  of  basalt 
arises  from  the  pressure  of  numerous  spheroids  on 
each  other  in  the  act  of  cooling.  He  melted  seven 
hundred  weight  of  basalt,  called  the  Rowley  rag-stone, 
keeping  up  the  fire  for  six  hours,  and  allowed  it  to 
cool  so  slowly  that  it  was  eight  days  before  it  was 
taken  from  the  furnace.  The  mass  is  said  to  have 
been  wedge-shaped,  four  feet  and  a  half  long,  two  feet 
and  a  half  broad,  eighteen  inches  thick  at  one  end, 
and  four  at  the  other,  —  a  form  well  adapted  to  exhibit 
the  different  rates  of  cooling,  and  the  various  kinds 
of  texture  produced.  Where  it  was  thinnest,  and 
cooled  most  rapidly,  the  texture  was  glassy ;  where  it 
was  thickest,  and  cooled  most  slowly,  the  structure 
of  it  became  stony ;  while  the  intermediate  parts  ex- 
hibited a  transition  from  one  state  to  the  other.  Very 
many  spheroids  were  formed ;  where  two  came  in 
contact,  they  were  compressed,  and  when  several  met, 
they  formed  prisms.  An  idea  of  the  arrangement 
may  be  obtained  by  conceiving  of  a  number  of  can- 
non balls  piled  on  each  other,  and  then  reduced  to 
a  nearly  fluid  state,  or  partially  melted,  —  when  the 
pressure  of  these  globular  bodies  on  each  other  would 
produce  the  columnar  arrangement  which  is  so  evi- 
dently visible  in  basalt. 


TJNSTRATIFIED    ROCKS.  133 

Sometimes1  the  columns  of  greenstone,  when  found 
in  an  overhanging  situation,  as  they  project,  become 
exfoliated,  so  as  to  present  a  convex  surface  down- 
ward. Such  is  the  case  with  a  group  at  Mount 
Holyoke,  and  which  Professor  Hitchcock  denomi- 
nates Titan's  Piazza.  He  observes,  that,  when  the 
trap  vein,  or  dyke,  as  it  is  termed,  is  columnar,  the 
columns  are  often  horizontal,  or  rather  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  sides  of  the  vein ;  and  thus  is  produced  a 
wall  of  stones  regularly  fitted  to  one  another  and  laid 
up  apparently  by  man  ;  while  a  decomposition  of  the 
surfaces  of  the  blocks  often  produces  a  powder  re- 
sembling crumbling  mortar.  A  wall  of  this  sort  has 
been  discovered  in  Rowan  county,  North  Carolina, 
which  projected  above  the  rock  it  traversed,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  decay  of  the  rock,  and  it  was  for  a 
long  time  confidently  believed  to  be  the  work  of  hu- 
man skill,  —  proving  the  former  existence  there  of  a 
powerful  and  civilized  people. 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  scenery  in  this  coun- 
try is  formed  by  greenstone  columns,  standing  up- 
right, or  leaning  only  a  few  degrees.  The  Palisa- 
does  on  the  Hudson  River  are  a  well  known  example ; 
but  the  most  extensive  formation  of  this  kind  is  said 
to  be  in  the  country  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
where  the  Columbia  River  passes  through  mountains 
of  trap,  and  probably  basalt,  from  four  hundred  to 
one  thousand  feet  in  height,  and  where  successive 
rows  of  columns  stand  one  over  another,  separated 
only  by  a  few  feet  of  amygdaloid  conglomerate,  or 
breccia. 

SERPENTINE.  —  An  account  was  given  of  this  rock 


134  UNSTRATIFIED    ROCKS. 

among  the  class  of  stratified  rocks.  The  beautiful 
verd-antique  marble,  which  is  found  at  New  Haven 
and  Milford,  in  Connecticut,  and  other  parts  of  this 
country,  is  a  variety  of  this  rock ;  besides  which  there 
are  also  other  interesting  varieties,  founded  on  the 
greater  or  less  mixture  of  serpentine  with  limestone, 
talc,  hornblende,  and  feldspar. 

LAVA.  —  By  lava  is  meant  all  the  melted  matter 
of  various  descriptions  thrown  out  from  volcanoes ;  the 
greater  part  of  it  being  composed  of  feldspar  and  augite. 
When  feldspar  prevails,  a  light-colored  lava  is  pro- 
duced ;  when  augite  prevails,  the  darker  varieties  are 
the  result.  Many  other  minerals  also  occur  in  lava ; 
not  less  than  one  hundred  species  having  been  detected 
in  the  lava  of  Vesuvius. 

The  feldspathic  or  tr  achy  tic  lava,  when  cooled  under 
pressure,  produces  solid  rock ;  but  when  cooled  in  the 
air,  it  is  porous,  fibrous,  and  light  enough  to  swim  on 
the  water,  like  pumice  ;  large  masses  of  which  are  some- 
times found  floating  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean.  The 
basaltic  or  augitic  lavas  are  said  very  greatly  to  re- 
semble the  older  basalt,  and,  when  cooled  under  pres- 
sure, compact  basalt  is  the  result ;  but  if  cooled  in  the 
open  air,  they  are  scoriaceous  or  vesicular,  and  are 
called  scoria. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  lava  ;  as,  the  vitreous 
kind,  which  has  a  fracture  like  glass;  obsidian,  which 
is  called  volcanic  glass ;  and  pitchstone,  which  is  less 
glassy,  with  an  appearance  like  pitch. 

The  small  angular  fragments  and  dust  of  pumice  and 
of  scoriae  produced  by  an  eruption,  when  falling  into  the 
sea,  or  on  dry  land,  and  mixing  with  sand,  gravel,  shells, 


TTNSTRATIFIED    ROCKS.  135 

&c.,  and  hardened  by  carbonate  filtering  through  them, 
constitute  what  is  called  tuff.  This,  according  as  it  oc- 
curs with  trap  or  modern  lava,  is  called  trap  tuff  or 
volcanic  tuff.  When  found  with  large  angular  frag- 
ments, it  forms  volcanic  breccia.  Sometimes,  says  Pro- 
fessor Hitchcock,  especially  at  the  great  volcano  of 
Kailauca,  on  the  Sandwich  Islands,  when  lava  is  thrown 
into  the  air,  the  winds  spin  it  out  into  threads  resem- 
bling flax,  and  drive  it  against  the  sides  of  the  crater. 
This  is  called  volcanic  glass ;  and  by  the  natives  of  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  Pele's  hair,  —  Pele  having  former- 
ly been  regarded  as  the  presiding  goddess  of  this  vol- 
cano. Besides  these,  there  are  also  thrown  out  from 
volcanoes  fragments  of  granite  and  other  rocks,  almost 
in  an  unaltered  state  ;  cinders  and  ashes  ;  also  sulphur 
and  various  salts  and  gases. 

In  general,  the  unstratified  rocks  are  more  easily 
melted  than  the  stratified,  and  this  property  increases 
as  we  proceed  from  the  granite  to  the  lava ;  owing 
to  the  fact,  it  is  said,  that  there  is  a  greater  pro- 
portion of  lime,  and  often  of  alkali,  in  the  more  re- 
cent rocks. 


ORGANIC   REMAINS. 


WE  are  now  about  to  open  one  of  the  most  startling 
pages  of  human  science,  —  that  which  treats  of  organic 
remains,  —  and  the  study  of  which  is  called  Paleon- 
tology. It  is  only  since  the  discoveries  in  this  branch 
of  geology,  that  it  has  made  such  rapid  advances,  and 
taken  so  high  a  stand  in  the  public  estimation. 

Allusion  has  been  made,  in  the  preceding  pages, 
to  the  various  remains  found  in  the  stratified  rocks 
of  our  earth,  which,  in  science,  bear  the  general  name 
of  organic  remains,  though  in  common  language  they 
are  frequently  called  petrifactions.  These  consist  of 
the  relics  of  plants  and  animals,  and  are  found  in  a 
v^iety  of  conditions  and  circumstances. 

It  may  be  well,  in  the  first  place,  to  present  some 
views  of  the  general  characteristics  of  organic  re- 
mains, and  then  proceed  to  consider  them  more  in 
detail. 

Animals  are  sometimes  found  entire,  in  the  more  re- 
cent formations ;  and  sometimes,  also,  parts  of  them, 
less  liable  to  be  altered,  are  discovered  in  the  solid 
rocks,  with  but  little  change.  The  harder  parts  of  the 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  137 

animal  are,  indeed,  often  impregnated  with  mineral 
substances,  but  this  does  not  prevent  the  examination 
of  the  animal  matter. 

As  an  example  of  the  first  class,  may  be  mentioned 
the  fact,  that  the  entire  carcass  of  an  elephant  was 
found,  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  in  the 
frozen  mud  and  sand  of  Siberia.  It  was  covered  with 
hair  and  fur,  resembling  those  of  the  elephants  which 
are  now  found  among  the  Himalaya  Mountains  of 
Asia.  The  drift  along  the  shores  of  the  Northern 
Ocean  of  the  eastern  continent  abounds  with  the  bones 
of  the  same  animal,  but  without  the  preservation  of 
the  flesh  and  hair.  In  1771,  the  entire  carcass  of  a 
rhinoceros  was  dug  out  of  the  gravel,  in  that  frozen 
region. 

Besides  the  conditions  above  mentioned,  in  which 
organic  remains  appear,  sometimes  the  animal  sub- 
stance is  almost  entirely  replaced  by  mineral  matter, 
and  thus  a, real  petrifaction  is  formed;  at  other  times, 
the  animal  matter,  having  been  partially  inclosed  by 
the  mineral,  decays  or  falls  out,  and  leaves  a  mould 
which  presents  its  shape  more  or  less  perfectly.  These 
moulds  are  often  filled  up  with  extraneous  matter,  and 
thus  form  a  species  of  cast,  showing  what  the  animal 
was. 

In  other  instances,  the  substance  of  the  animal  mat- 
ter is  so  crushed  down  and  flattened,  that  only  a  thin 
plate,  seeming  to  indicate  the  form,  size,  and  character 
of  the  animal,  remains  ;  sometimes,  also,  nothing  is  left 
but  tracks  impressed  on  the  rocks,  or  fecal  remains,  to 
furnish  the  materials  for  judging  of  the  races  which 
have  existed. 


138  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

In  the  case  of  petrifaction,  which  is  the  replacing 
of  animal  or  vegetable  matter  by  mineral  substances, 
by  means  of  chemical  action,  the  process  is  common, 
and  often  witnessed  at  the  present  day.  Of  this  we 
have  given  several  instances,  in  our  account  of  alluvi- 
um. Among  the  mineralizers  which  are  most  com- 
monly found  are  carbonate  of  lime,  silica,  clay,  oxide 
or  sulphuret  of  iron,  and  sometimes  the  ores  of  copper, 
lead,  &c. 

In  the  alluvial  and  diluvial  formations,  the  traces  of 
the  existing  orders  of  animated  nature  are  everywhere 
apparent.  Works  of  art,  mingled  with  the  bones  of 
man,  and  the  remains  of  vegetables  and  animals,  are 
found  in  these  modern  deposits.  But  as  we  advance 
into  the  earlier  formations,  many  species  of  them  are 
absent,  and  finally  we  come  upon  regions  where  the 
existing  races  wholly  disappear,  and  those  at  present 
unknown  seem  to  have  usurped  the  dominion  of  nature 
in  the  remote  ages  to  which  they  must  be  referred. 

ORGANIC  REMAINS  OF  MAN.  —  The  question  has 
been  raised,  and  much  interest  has  been  excited  in  its 
discussion,  whether  human  remains  exist  in  the  geolog- 
ical formations  which  have  been  mentioned.  It  was 
formerly  supposed  that  this  was  the  case ;  but  later 
investigations  have  proved  that  the  fossil  bones  which 
were  said  to  be  human  have  no  claim  to  be  thus  con- 
sidered. Thus,  the  specimens  which  Scheuchzer  no- 
tices, under  the  head  of  Homo,  diluvii  testis,  —  "  Man, 
a  witness  of  the  deluge,"  —  Cuvier  demonstrated  to 
be  those  of  a  large  salamander.  Other  supposed  cases 
have  been  proved  to  be  equally  unfounded.  So  far  as 
the  earth  has  been  examined,  there  appears  to  be  an 


ORGANIC     REMAINS.  139 

entire  uniformity  in  this  respect.  It  is,  indeed,  re- 
garded as  conclusively  established,  that  such  animals 
as  now  exist  could  not  have  lived  in  that  state  which 
must  have  prevailed  while  the  creatures  whose  remains 
we  find  in  the  lower  formations  flourished. 

Certain  human  remains  have,  it  is  true,  been  discov- 
ered, imbedded  in  solid  limestone  rock,  on  the  shore  of 
the  island  of  Guadaloupe.  But  this  rock  being  of  re- 
cent formation,  and  composed  of  fragments  of  shells 
and  corals,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  they 
are  of  ancient  date.  They  have  been  conjectured  by 
some  to  have  belonged  to  a  race  of  Indians  who  were 
exterminated  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  years 
since  by  the  Caribs  ;  while  others  have  referred  them 
to  a  Peruvian  origin.  A  curious  impression  of  human 
feet,  also,  was  discovered,  many  years  ago,  in  sandstone, 
on  the  western  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  at  St.  Louis, 
which  Dr.  Mantell  says,  he  has  no  doubt  is  an  actual 
print  of  human  feet  in  soft  sand,  which  was  quickly 
converted  into  solid  rock  by  the  infiltration  of  calcare- 
ous matter.  The  length  of  each  foot  is  ten  inches  and 
a  half,  and  the  spread  of  the  toes  four  inches,  indi- 
cating the  usual  stature,  and  the  nature  of  the  impres- 
sion shows  that  the  feet  were  unconfined  by  shoes  or 
sandals.  Others,  however,  have  been  disposed  to  view 
these  impressions  as  the  work  of  art.  It  may  be  re- 
marked, that  none  of  these  indications  of  the  presence 
of  human  beings  are  found,  except  in  the  alluvial  for- 
mations. 

MODE    OF    DETERMINING    THE    NATURE    OF    ANIMALS 

FROM  THEIR  BONES.  —  Before  entering  upon  the  con- 
sideration of  the  principal  animals  found  in  the  tertiary 


140  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

and  secondary  formations,  it  may  be  well  to  allude  to 
some  of  the  means  by  which  the  discoveries  of  lost 
species  have  been  so  wonderfully  obtained.  In  this 
the  science  of  comparative  anatomy  bears  a  striking 
part  To  a  person  unacquainted  with  this  art,  the 
fossil  bones  brought  to  light  might  seem  a  confused 
medley  of  mere  fragments,  from  which  nothing  certain 
could  be  gathered.  Like  the  hieroglyphics,  some  key 
was  needed  to  explain  the  mystery ;  and  it  is  to  the 
genius  and  knowledge  of  Cuvier  that  we  owe  the 
method  of  solving  the  question,  What  were  the  animals, 
and  their  habits,  of  which  these  are  the  mere  relics  ? 
A  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the  living  races,  their 
peculiarities  as  well  as  resemblances,  is  all  important 
to  this  end. 

The  organs  of  every  animal,  says  Cuvier,  may  be 
considered  as  forming  a  machine,  the  parts  of  which 
are  mutually  dependent  on  each  other,  and  exquisitely 
adapted  for  the  functions  they  are  designed  to  perform  ; 
and  such  is  the  intimate  relation  of  the  several  organs, 
that  any  variation  in  one  part  is  constantly  accompanied 
by  a  corresponding  modification  in  another.  The  mu- 
tual adaptation  of  the  several  parts  of  the  animal 
fabric  is  a  law  of  organic  structure,  which,  like  every 
other  induction  of  physical  truth,  has  only  been  estab- 
lished by  patient  and  laborious  investigation.  It  is  by 
the  knowledge  of  this  law  that  we  are  enabled  to  re- 
assemble, as  it  were,  the  scattered  remains  of  the  be- 
ings of  a  former  state  of  the  globe ;  to  determine 
their  place  in  the  scale  of  animated  nature ;  and  to 
reason  on  their  structure,  habits,  and  economy,  with  as 
much  clearness  and  certainty  as  if  they  were  still 


ORGANIC     REMAINS.  141 

living  and  before  us.  Of  all  the  solid  parts  of  the  an- 
imal structure,  the  most  obviously  mechanical  are  the 
jaws  and  teeth  ;  and  as  we  know  in  each  instance  the 
operations  they  are  intended  to  perform,  they  afford 
the  most  simple  and  striking  illustration  of  the  princi- 
ples above  enunciated. 

On  examining  the  jaws  of  carnivorous  animals,  we 
find  a  set  of  cutting  teeth,  called  incisors,  in  front,  ca- 
nine teeth,  or  sharp  fangs,  on  the  sides,  and  the  moZar, 
—  that  is,  bruising,  grinding,  or  crushing  teeth,  —  far- 
ther behind.  These  last  rise  into  sharp,  cutting  points, 
and  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaw  overlap  each  other, 
like  the  edges  of  a  pair  of  shears.  Thev  are  likewise 
covered  with  a  thick  crust  of  enamel,  and  are  thus 
suited  for  tearing  or  cutting  flesh,  and  breaking  or 
crushing  bones;  but  are  not  adapted  for  grinding  the 
stalks  or  the  seeds  of  vegetables.  The  jaws  open 
and  shut  like  a  hinge,  and  thus  admit  of  no  grinding 
motion. 

In  the  case,  therefore,  of  an  animal  whose  stomach 
is  so  organized  as  to  fit  it  for  the  digestion  of  flesh 
alone,  and  that  raw  or  fresh,  the  jaws  will  be  found 
to  be  so  constructed  as  to  serve  for  devouring  live 
prey  ;  the  claws,  for  seizing  and  tearing  it  in  pieces ; 
the  teeth,  for  cutting  and  dividing  it ;  its  whole  system 
of  motion,  for  pursuing  and  overtaking  it ;  the  organs 
of  sense,  for  perceiving  it  at  a  distance  ;  and  the  brain, 
with  the  instinct  necessary  for  teaching  the  animal 
how  to  conceal  itself,  and  lie  in  wait  for  its  victim. 
But  to  carry  out  these  general  principles,  the  muscles 
which  raise  the  head  must  be  vigorous,  and  conse- 
quently the  vertebrae  or  bones  from  which  these 


142  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

muscles  spring  must  be  of  a  particular  form,  adapted 
to  the  purpose.  The  paws  or  claws  must  possess  a 
peculiarity  of  construction,  that  they  may  easily  move 
and  grasp  with  strength  ;  and  so  of  all  the  various 
members. 

The  case  is  different  with  regard  to  the  herbivorous 
animals,  or  those  which  live  on  vegetables.  They  have 
no  sharp  canine  teeth  or  fangs ;  and  the  enamel  is  not 
placed  on  the  top  of  the  teeth,  tut  in  deep  vertical  lay- 
ers, alternating  with  bony  matter,  so  as  to  form  a 
grinding  surface.  The  flat  molar  teeth  are  not  fitted 
for  cutting,  but  to  masticate  or  grind,  to  reduce  into  a 
pulp  the  soft  vegetable  substance.  The  jaws,  too,  are 
loosely  articulated,  so  as  to  allow  a  sort  of  rotary  or 
lateral  movement ;  and  the  muscles  correspond  in  po- 
sition and  power  with  the  design  in  view. 

Another  class  of  animals  are  called  the  rodentia,  or 
gnawers,  of  which  the  squirrel  is  an  example.  These 
have  long  cutting  teeth,  like  nippers  ;  the  front  teeth  are 
large,  compared  with  the  molar  teeth,  and  are  so  inter- 
locked as  to  allow  no  grinding  motion ;  and  the  lower 
jaw  is  so  constructed,  that,  instead  of  working  in  the 
skull  transversely,  or  laterally,  it  works  lengthwise,  the 
teeth  moving  backwards  and  forwards,  like  a  carpenter 
using  his  plane.  These  cutting  teeth  are  also  liable  to 
be  worn  away  by  constant  use,  and  therefore  they  are 
renewed  by  continual  growth,  and  there  is  a  special 
provision  for  their  support  in  a  bent  socket.  The  en- 
amel is  very  thin  behind,  and  thick  in  front  of  the 
tooth  ;  so  that  the  cutting  edges  are  kept  sharp,  as,  by 
the  act  of  gnawing,  the  hinder  part  wears  away  sooner 
than  the  fore  part)  and  thus  an  inclined  edge,  like  thai 


ORGANIC     REMAINS.  143 

of  a  chisel,  is  continued.  The  enamel  of  the  molar 
teeth,  also,  is  placed  vertically  and  transversely,  so  as 
to  form  an  admirable  grinding  surface. 

From  these  examples  it  is  evident  that  the  practised 
comparative  anatomist  can  easily  discover  by  a  tooth 
the  class  of  animals  to  which  a  subject  belonged,  and 
consequently  the  kind  of  vertebrae,  claws,  and  other 
bones,  as  well  as  muscles,  which  the  creature  must 
have  had.  The  animal  by  this  means  may  be  re- 
stored, and  a  drawing  made  of  him,  such  as  he  proba- 
bly was  when  living,  and  his  habits  and  economy  de- 
scribed. The  nature  of  the  country  which  he  must 
have  inhabited,  its  climate,  productions,  &c.,  may  like- 
wise be  deduced  from  these  prior  conclusions.  Thus 
Cuvier  and  others  have  been  enabled  to  form  a  numer- 
ous fossil  collection  of  extinct  species,  and  to  describe 
various  peculiarities  they  possessed,  which  would  oth- 
erwise have  remained  unknown. 

The  laws,  which  have  just  been  mentioned  as  ap- 
plicable to  quadrupeds,  apply  also,  with  certain  modifi- 
cations, to  other  beings,  as  birds,  reptiles,  insects,  &c. 
The  feet  of  birds  correspond  to  the  classes  to  which 
they  belong.  Some  are  designed  to  climb  and  perch 
on  trees  ;  some,  to  seize  on  and  tear  their  prey ;  oth- 
ers, again,  to  paddle  in  the  water;  others,  to  frequent 
marshes ;  and  yet  others,  to  live  in  sandy  deserts. 
All  of  these  have  their  peculiarity  of  construction, 
by  which  their  habits  and  economy  may  be  discov- 
ered. Certain  forms  of  different  parts  of  the  skele- 
ton are  found  to  be  related  to  each  other ;  so  that, 
where  one  is  found,  the  other  must  be  supposed  to  ex- 
ist. In  the  older  fossils,  the  bones  which  are  found 


144  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

are  no  longer  white  and  glossy,  like  the  recent  skele- 
ton, but  have  been  changed  in  appearance,  like  bones 
that  have  lost  a  portion  of  their  animal  matter  by  being 
buried  in  a  dry  and  loose  soil.  Besides  the  bones,  there 
are  also  found  the  feces  of  animals,  which  have  suf- 
fered such  changes  as  to  have  become  converted  into 
stone,  and  are  called  coprolites.  These  likewise  afford 
additional  means  of  identifying  the  animals  in  con- 
nection with  which  they  are  found. 

FOSSIL  ELEPHANTS  AXD  MAMMOTHS.  —  We  now 
come  to  the  description  of  particular  species  of  fossil  an- 
imals. There  are  two  species  of  elephants  still  exist- 
ing in  tropical  regions,  —  the  Asiatic  and  the  African. 
The  Asiatic  is  the  largest,  and  is  found  no  further  north 
than  the  thirty-first  degree  of  north  latitude ;  the  Afri- 
can is  found  as  far  south  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

The  colossal  bones  of  the  elephantine  family,  which 
occur  in  such  great  abundance  as  fossils,  were  formerly 
supposed  to  be  the  remains  of  giants ;  and  the  fossil 
tooth  of  an  elephant,  discovered  at  Brighton,  in  Eng- 
land, was  conjectured,  some  years  since,  to  be  a  petri- 
fied cauliflower. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  elephants  discovered 
in  Siberia,  in  the  ice  of  that  frigid  region,  and  of  the 
bones  of  the  rhinoceros  and  mastodon  along  the  Arctic 
shores. 

'  The  teeth  of  the  fossil  elephant  appear  to  be  some- 
what peculiar,  though  more  nearly  allied  to  the  Asiatic 
or  Indian  elephant  than  to  the  African.  These  are 
sometimes  water- worn,  but  usually  are  perfect.  From 
the  characteristics  exhibited,  Cuvier  decided  that  the 
species  thus  indicated  is  extinct,  and  that  the  structure 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  145 

of  the  teeth,  the  configuration  of  the  skull,  and  the  hairy 
and  woolly  skin,  proved  that  it  was  adapted  to  live  in 
a  colder  climate  than  that  in  which  the  Asiatic  species 
could  exist ;  from  which  he  inferred  that  they  lived  in 
the  country  where  their  remains  were  found  ;  and  from 
the  preservation  of  their  carcasses  in  ice,  he  further  in- 
ferred that  a  sudden  change  of  climate  must  have  taken 
place  in  those  regions.  Mr.  Lyell  supposes  that  a  large 
portion  of  Central  Asia,  and  perhaps  Southern  Siberia, 
may  have  enjoyed  a  climate  mild  enough  for  the  ele- 
phant ;  and  that  the  whole  tract  of  mountains,  to  the 
sea,  may  have  been  upheaved,  and  thus  sudden  cold 
have  been  produced  through  all  Northeastern  Asia. 

Fossil  elephants  have  been  found  in  various  countries. 
As  many  teeth  have  been  collected  on  the  coast  of  Nor- 
folk and  Suffolk,  in  England,  as  must  have  belonged  to 
not  less  than  five  hundred  individuals.  In  Essex,  a 
large  collection  has  been  made,  which  comprises  skulls, 
teeth,  and  tusks,  from  the  sucking  animal  to  that  which 
was  full  grown.  Similar  deposits  have  been  found  also 
in  France,  along  the  coast. 

THE  MASTODON,  &c. — This  fossil  animal  is  incor- 
rectly called  the  mammoth  ;  but  that  name  belongs 
rather  to  the  fossil  elephant ;  the  mastodon  differing  from 
the  elephant  in  the  form  of  its  teeth.  The  places  that 
afford  the  bones  of  the  mastodon  in  the  greatest  number 
are  the  salt  or  brackish  waters  of  North  America, 
which  are  called  Licks.  Of  these,  Big  Bone  Lick,  in 
Kentucky,  is  very  celebrated.  The  mastodon  was  a 
gigantic  animal.  An  entire  skeleton  in  Peale's  Mu- 
seum, Philadelphia,  is  fifteen  feet  long  and  eleven  feet 
high.  It  derives  its  name  from  two  Greek  words,  signi- 
10 


146  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

fying  mammillary  teeth ;  because  the  thick  enamel  which 
is  spread  over  the  crown  of  the  tooth,  when  unworn, 
is  divided  into  two  several  transverse  processes,  each 
of  which  is  also  subdivided  into  obtuse  points.  These 
teeth,  unlike  those  of  carnivorous  animals,  have  no 
longitudinal  and  saw-like  cutting  edge.  They  resem- 
ble rather  those  of  the  hog  and  hippopotamus,  and 
seem  designed  for  bruising  and  masticating  raw  vege- 
tables, roots,  and  water-plants.  The  animal  was  not 
altogether  unlike  the  elephant,  but  had  a  longer  and 
thicker  body.  It  had  a  trunk  or  proboscis,  tusks,  and 
four  molar  teeth  in  each  jaw,  but  no  incisors  or  cutting 
teeth.  It  probably  frequented  marshy  places,  and  was 
undoubtedly  a  terrestrial  animal.  Among  a  collection 
of  the  bones  imbedded  in  the  mud,  a  mass  of  branches, 
grass,  and  leaves,  in  a  half-bruised  state,  was  discov- 
ered, together  with  a  species  of  reed  common  in  Vir- 
ginia ;  the  whole,  says  Dr.  Mantell,  appeared  to  have 
been  enveloped  in  a  sack,  probably  the  stomach  of  the 
animal.*  The  tusks  are  of  ivory,  and  vary  in  their 
curve.  Cuvier  thought  he  had  discovered  not  less  than 
six  species  of  the  mastodon.  Some  of  them  have 
been  found  in  America  only,  and  others  in  Europe. 
The  Big  Bone  Lick  contains  a  vast  number  of  the 

*  Professor  Owen,  a  British  geologist  of  high  standing,  states 
that  the  young  mastodon  possessed  four  tusks,  —  two  in  the  upper 
and  two  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  two  in  the  upper  jaw  remained 
through  life ;  while  the  two  in  the  lower,  in  females,  both  decayed 
and  fell  out,  as  the  animal  grew  up,  the  sockets  being  obliter- 
ated ;  in  the  male,  only  the  left  one  perished,  and  the  right  re- 
mained ;  so  that  the  name  Tetracaulodon,  which  had  been  given 
to  it  as  a  distinct  species,  was  incorrect. 


ORGANIC   REMAINS.  147 

bones  imbedded  in  a  dark  mud  or  gravel.  Mr.  Cooper, 
who  examined  the  spot  carefully,  supposes  that  the 
bones  of  one  hundred  mastodons,  twenty  elephants, 
two  oxen,  one  deer,  and  one  megalonyx,  have 
been  carried  from  it.  Baron  Humboldt  found  a  tooth 
of  the  mastodon  near  a  volcano,  at  the  height  of 
twelve  hundred  fathoms. 

The  remains  of  an  animal,  which,  from  the  structure 
of  its  teeth,  is  considered  as  filling  up  the  interval 
between  the  mastodon  and  the  elephant,  have  been 
found  in  the  Burmese  empire.  The  structure  of  the 
teeth  in  general  is  similar  to  that  of  the  great  mastodon ; 
but  the  ridges  in  the  crown  of  the  tooth  are  disposed 
similarly  to  those  in  that  of  the  elephant ;  and  the  worn 
surface  of  the  teeth,  it  is  said,  bears  an  analogy  to  that 
of  the  grinders  of  the  African  elephant.  These  remains 
were  found  by  Mr.  Crawford,  on  the  Irrawaddy,  and  are 
believed  by  the  natives  to  be  the  bones  of  giants,  who 
warred  against  Vishnu,  and  were  destroyed.  It  is 
not  a  little  remarkable,  that,  while  there  are  many  of 
the  bones  of  the  mastodon,  showing  that  this  animal 
once  existed  in  great  numbers  in  that  country,  no 
bones  of  the  elephant,  tiger,  or  hyena,  animals  now 
abounding  in  India,  have  been  discovered. 

The  relics  of  the  rhinoceros,  horse,  ox,  hippopota- 
mus, deer,  and  camel,  are  often  found  associated 
with  other  fossil  bones.  <  They  are  usually  much 
larger  than  those  of  the  existing  species.  The  horns 
of  the  fossil  ox  have  been  found  thirty-one  inches 
long ;  and  those  of  the  elk  have  been  seen,  in  Ire- 
land, measuring  from  ten  to  fourteen  feet  between 
the  tips,  and  reaching  as  high  as  ten  feet  from  the 


148  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

ground.  The  average  weight  of  the  skull  and  ant- 
lers is  computed  to  be  three  quarters  of  a  hundred 
weight.  Professor  Jamieson,  and  others,  says  Dr. 
Mantell,  have  proved  that  this  majestic  creature  was 
coeval  with  man.  A  skull  was  discovered,  in  Germany, 
associated  with  urns  and  stone-hatchets ;  and  in  the 
county  of  Cork,  a  human  body  was  exhumed  from  a 
wet  and  marshy  soil,  beneath  a  bed  of  peat  eleven 
feet  thick ;  the  body  was  in  a  good  state  of  preserva- 
tion, and  enveloped  in  a  skin,  covered  with  hair, 
which  there  is  every  reason  to  conclude  was  that  of 
the  elk.  A  rib  of  the  elk  has  also  been  found,  in 
which  there  is  a  perforation,  that  evidently  had  been 
made  by  a  pointed  instrument,  while  the  animal  was 
alive ;  for  there  is  an  effusion  of  callus,  or  new  bony 
matter,  which  could  only  have  resulted  from  some- 
thing remaining  in  the  wound  for  a  considerable  period, 
—  an  effect  like  that  produced  by  a  wound  from  a 
spear  or  arrow. 

HYENAS,  &c.,  —  The  remains  of  hyenas  have  been 
found  singularly  associated  with  other  remains  in  cav- 
erns. Of  these,  the  cave  of  Kirkdale,  in  England,  is 
one  of  the  best  known.  In  1821,  some  workmen, 
while  quarrying  stone,  cut  across  the  narrow  mouth  of 
a  chasm,  which  had  been  choked  up  with  rubbish, 
and  overgrown  with  grass  and  bushes.  The  access 
was  so  confined,  that  a  person  could  enter  only  in 
a  bent  position.  The  whole  interior  of  the  cave 
was  covered  with  a  bed  of  hardened  mud  or  clay, 
averaging  about  a  foot  in  thickness.  The  surface 
was  perfectly  smooth  and  level,  when  the  cave  was 
first  opened,  except  where  stalagmites  had  been 


ORGANIC   REMAINS.  149 

formed.  A  thin  coat  of  stalactitic  matter,  like  ice,  also 
extended  over  the  bottom,  which  must  have  been 
formed  after  the  mud  was  deposited.  In  this  mud, 
or  clay,  were  found  great  quantities  of  bones  of  vari- 
ous animals,  many  of  them  exhibiting  marks  of  hav- 
ing been  gnawed.  These  bones  belong  to  the  tiger, 
bear,  wolf,  fox,  weasel,  elephant,  rhinoceros,  hippo- 
potamus, horse,  ox,  and  deer.  Bones  of  a  species 
of  hare,  or  rabbit,  water-rat,  and  mouse,  with  frag- 
ments of  the  skeletons  of  ravens,  pigeons,  larks,  and 
ducks,  were  also  imbedded  with  these  remains. 

From  these  facts,  says  Dr.  Mantell,  it  is  inferred 
that  the  cave  was  inhabited  by  hyenas,  for  a  considera- 
ble period ;  that  many  of  the  remains  found  there 
were  of  the  species  which  had  been  carried  in  and 
devoured  by  those  animals ;  and  that  in  some  instan- 
ces the  hyenas  preyed  upon  each  other.  It  would 
seem,  therefore,  that  the  wilds  and  forests  of  England 
were  once  inhabited  by  races  of  carnivorous  animals, 
belonging  to  genera  the  species  of  which  are  now 
almost  wholly  confined  to  southern  climates ;  that 
they  continued  for  successive  generations,  and  were 
the  prey  or  the  destroyers  of  each  other;  that  the 
hyenas,  according  to  their  peculiar  habits,  dragged 
into  their  dens  the  creatures  which  they  killed  or 
found  dead,  and  devoured  them  at  their  leisure ;  and 
that  these  races  afterwards  became  extinct,  and  were 
succeeded  by  animals  of  an  entirely  different  char- 
acter. 

Diseased  bones  of  carnivorous  animals  are  also  found 
in  Germany.  In  some  of  these,  as  described  by  Pro- 
fessor Walther,  there  has  been  a  formation  of  new 


150  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

bony  matter,  to  repair  fractures  in  the  joints,  which 
adhere  from  inflammation ;  in  others,  the  effects  of  the 
decay  of  the  bones  from  disease  are  evident.  Some, 
likewise,  have  a  light  and  spongy  character,  exhibiting 
the  want  of  nutriment  in  consequence  of  scrofulous 
affections. 

SIVATHERIUM.  —  This  is  an  animal  which  seems 
to  have  occupied  a  place,  and  formed  a  link,  be- 
tween the  ruminants  and  the  large  pachydermata, 
or  thick-skinned  animals.  A  skull,  and  other  parts  of 
the  skeleton,  have  been  discovered  in  India,  in  the 
hills  of  Livalik,  which  belong  to  the  Sub-Himalaya 
mountains.  The  deposits,  where  they  were  found,  con- 
sist of  immense  quantities  of  fossil  teeth  and  bones  of 
the  elephant,  mastodon,  and  other  animals,  crocodiles, 
shells,  and  fishes.  From  the  skull,  it  is  ascertained 
that  the  animal  had  four  horns  and  a  proboscis; 
that  it  exceeded  the  rhinoceros  in  size,  and  combined 
the  horns  of  a  ruminant  animal  with  the  character- 
istics of  the  thick-skinned  tribes.  When  living,  it  is 
supposed  that  it  must  have  resembled  an  immense 
antelope,  or  gnu,  with  a  short  and  thick  head,  an  ele- 
vated cranium,  crested  with  two  pairs  of  horns,  the 
front  pair  of  which  were  small,  and  the  hinder  large, 
and  set  quite  behind,  with  the  face  and  figure  of  the 
rhinoceros.  It  must  have  had  small  eyes,  on  the  side 
of  the  head,  great  lips,  and  a  nasal  proboscis. 

Extinct  species  of  the  monkey  and  camel  were 
found  in  the  same  deposit. 

THE  MEGALONYX.  —  This  was  an  animal  about  the 
size  of  an  ox,  the  bones  of  which  were  discovered  in 
the  nitre  caverns  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky.  They 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  151 

were  first  described  by  Mr.,  afterwards  President,  Jef- 
ferson. He  supposed,  from  the  form  and  size  of  the 
claw-bone,  that  it  was  a  carnivorous  animal ;  but  Cuvier, 
a  better  anatomist,  determined,  from  the  character  of 
its  articulations,  that  the  animal  belonged  to  the  sloth 
tribe.  The  distinctions  on  which  the  decision  was 
founded  are  as  follows: — The  paws  or  feet  of  the 
dog  and  cat  are  both  armed  with  claws.  In  the 
dog  tribe,  the  nails  are  coarse  and  thick,  and  fitted  to 
bear  the  friction  of  a  long  chase  ;  while  in  the  cat  tribe, 
they  are  crooked  and  sharp,  —  a  peculiarity,  the  preser- 
vation of  which  is  owing  to  a  peculiar  mechanism. 
The  last  bone  which  supports  the  claw  is  placed  side- 
ways to  the  last  bone  but  one,  and  is  so  united  with  it, 
that  a  tendon  draws  it  backward,  and  raises  up  the 
sharp  point  of  the  claw,  and  the  nearest  end  of  the 
farther  bone  presses  on  the  ground,  as  the  animal 
usually  runs,  the  claw  being  drawn  back  into  a  sheath ; 
but  when  the  animal  makes  a  spring  and  strikes,  then 
the  claws  are  thrown  out,  by  the  action  of  the  bend- 
ing tendons,  or  flexor  muscles.  The  example  of  the 
cat  is  familiar  to  all  who  have  observed  with  what 
ease  she  can  throw  out  or  draw  in  her  claws.  Now,  in 
the  claw  of  the  megalonyx,  there  is  no  such  provision 
for  drawing  back  the  claw,  and  the  point  could  not 
have  been  raised  vertically,  as  in  the  case  of  the  cat, 
so  as  to  allow  it  to  touch  the  ground  without  injury. 
As  the  articulating  surface  is  double,  and  there  is  a 
ridge  or  spine  in  the  middle,  it  must  have  moved  like 
a  hinge.  The  sloth,  an  existing  species  of  the  tardi- 
grade animals,  as  they  are  called,  has  long  toes  and 
large  nails,  constructed  similarly  to  those  of  the  fossil 


152  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

animal.  Instead  of  being  drawn  in,  the  nails  are  folded 
up,  as  when  our  fingers  are  folded  under  the  palms 
of  our  hands.  The  arms  are  double  the  length  of  the 
legs ;  and  the  animal,  from  the  peculiarity  of  the  con- 
struction of  its  limbs,  is  thus  obliged  to  drag  itself 
along  on  its  elbows.  The  sloth  tribe,  however,  are 
designed  to  inhabit  trees  ;  they  live  on  the  branches, 
and  rapidly  pass  from  one  to  another.  They  feed  on 
the  leaves  and  the  young  shoots,  and,  if  undisturbed, 
continue  on  a  tree  till  they  have  thoroughly  stripped  it 
of  its  foliage.  Instead  of  descending  by  the  trunk, 
they  roll  themselves  into  a  ball,  and  drop  down  to  the 
ground.  Their  claws,  therefore,  are  merely  hooks  to 
hang  by  on  the  branches,  and  they  have  great  strength 
in  their  arms.  They  keep  fast  hold  with  one  set  of 
hooks  till  they  catch  by  the  other,  and  thus  hang  by 
their  hands  and  feet.  They  sleep  in  the  same  position. 

The  megalonyx  had  a  great  resemblance  to  this  ani- 
mal in  some  of  these  peculiarities.  The  arm-bone  was 
fitted  to  receive  very  large  muscles  for  the  purpose  of 
moving  its  enormous  claws ;  and  there  was  also  an 
opening  for  a  passage  of  the  nerves  and  blood-vessels, 
to  protect  them  from  the  pressure  to  which  the  power- 
ful muscular  action  employed  would  have  exposed 
them,  while  there  was  a  provision  which  allowed  of  a 
rotary  motion  of  the  arm. 

The  MEGATHERIUM  is  an  animal  resembling  the 
megalonyx,  and  formerly  existed  on  the  pampas  of 
South  America,  where  the  bones  are  found  strewed 
over  an  extent  of  six  hundred  miles  or  more.  It  was 
about  nine  to  twelve  feet  long,  and  seven  or  eight  feet 
high,  and  thus  was  larger  than  the  rhinoceros.  Its 


ORGANIC    BEMAINS.  153 

proportions  were  colossal,  the  thigh-bone  being  three 
times  as  large  as  that  of  the  elephant,  and  the  haunch- 
bone  twice  the  breadth.  It  had  no  cutting  teeth ;  and 
the  molar  teeth,  or  grinders,  which  have  been  found, 
are  seven  inches  long,  of  a  prismatic  form,  and  of 
similar  composition  to  those  of  the  elephant.  The 
crown  of  the  tooth  always  presents  two  cutting,  wedge- 
shaped,  salient  angles.  In  forming  the  adze,  a  plate  of 
steel  is  put  between  two  plates  of  iron,  so  as  to  project 
in  a  line ;  in  the  same  manner,  these  teeth  have  in 
their  centre  a  cylinder  of  ivory,  which  is  well  protect- 
ed by  enamel,  and  thus  they  are  admirably  fitted  to 
cut  and  bruise  vegetable  matter.  The  whole  length  of 
the  fore-foot  is  a  yard ;  and  the  claws,  which  are  gi- 
gantic, are  set  in  obliquely  to  the  ground.  This  adapts 
them  peculiarly  for  digging.  Across  the  haunches,  it 
measured  five  feet ;  the  spinal  marrow  must  have  been 
a  foot  in  diameter ;  and  the  tail,  in  that  part  nearest  to 
the  body,  at  least  six  feet  in  circumference.  The  mega- 
loynx  and  the  megatherium  were  neither  of  them 
adapted  for  climbing  ;  but  their  food  probably  consisted 
of  vegetables  and  roots,  which  they  dug  up  with  their 
claws.  Referring  to  the  means  of  mastication  pos- 
sessed by  the  megatherium,  Dr.  Buckland  remarks, 
that  the  act  of  mastication  formed  and  perpetually 
maintained  a  series  of  wedges,  locking  into  each  other 
like  the  alternate  ridges  on  the  rollers  of  a  crushing- 
mill  ;  and  the  mouth  of  the  megatherium  became  an 
engine  of  prodigious  power,  in  which  thirty-two  such 
wedges  formed  the  grinding  surfaces  of  sixteen  molar 
teeth,  each  from  seven  to  nine  inches  long,  and  hav- 
ing the  quarter  part  of  this  length  fixed  firmly  in  a 


154  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

socket  of  great  depth.  It  is  scarcely  possible,  he  adds, 
to  find  any  apparatus  in  the  mechanism  of  dentition, 
which  constitutes  a  more  powerful  machine  for  masti- 
cating roots  than  was  formed  by  these  teeth  of  the 
megatherium,  accompanied  by  a  property  which  is  the 
perfection  of  all  machinery,  namely,  that  of  maintain- 
ing itself  perpetually  in  perfect  order,  by  the  act  of 
performing  its  work.  The  creature  is  supposed  to 
have  occupied  a  midway  position  between  the  sloths 
and  ant-eaters  and  the  armadillo.  The  bony  armor 
and  scales  which  were  once  attributed  to  it  have  been 
assigned  by  Professor  Owen,  a  distinguished  geologist 
and  comparative  anatomist,  to  another  animal,  as  large 
as  an  ox,  called  the  glyptodon.  An  entire  skeleton  of 
the  megatherium  is  in  the  Museum  at  Madrid,  in 
Spain. 

THE  DINOTHERITTM.  —  Among  the  various  extinct 
species  of  mammalia,  the  dinotherium  holds  the  first 
place.  This  creature  was  even  larger  than  the  mam- 
moth or  mastodon.  Its  bones  were  first  discovered  in 
the  South  of  France,  and  afterwards  in  Bavaria  and 
Austria.  The  molar  teeth  or  grinders  resemble  those 
of  the  tapir  in  form  and  structure  ;  and  Cuvier  describ- 
ed the  animal  under  the  name  of  the  gigantic  tapir. 
Professor  Kaup,  however,  regards  it  as  a  new  genus, 
between  the  tapir  and  the  mastodon,  and  adapted  to  a 
marshy  or  lacustrine  condition  of  the  earth,  which 
seems  to  have  prevailed  during  the  period 'when  the 
tertiary  strata  were  depositing.  The  skeletons  found 
show  that  the  animal  must,  in  some  cases,  have  been 
at  least  eighteen  feet  long.  The  shoulder-blade  re- 
sembled that  of  the  mole,  and  the  fore-leg  was  adapt- 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  155 

ed  to  digging  in  the  earth.  It  had  likewise  two  strong 
tusks  curved  downward,  the  reverse  of  those  of  the 
walrus;  and  the  lower  jaw,  into  which  they  were  firm- 
ly fixed,  was  four  feet  long.  From  the  structure  of 
the  cranium,  it  appears,  also,  to  have  had  a  proboscis. 
It  had  no  front  cutting  teeth  with  which  to  seize  its 
food,  and  the  jaws  did  not  close  together  in  front.  It 
is  mechanically  impossible,  says  Dr.  Buckland,  that 
a  lower  jaw,  nearly  four  feet  long,  loaded  with  such 
heavy  tusks  at  its  extremity,  could  have  been  otherwise 
than  cumbrous  and  inconvenient  to  a  quadruped  living 
on  dry  land.  No  such  disadvantage  would  have  at- 
tended this  structure  in  a  large  animal  designed  to  live 
in  water ;  and  the  aquatic  habits  of  the  family  of  ta- 
pirs, to  which  the  dinotherium  was  most  nearly  allied, 
render  it  probable,  that,  like  them,  it  was  an  inhab- 
itant of  fresh-water  lakes  and  rivers.  To  an  animal 
of  such  habits,  the  weight  of  the  tusks  sustained  in 
water  would  have  been  no  source  of  inconvenience; 
and,  if  we  suppose  them  to  have  been  employed  in 
raking  and  grubbing  up  by  the  roots  large  aquatic 
vegetables  from  the  bottom,  they  would  render  such 
service,  and  combine  the  mechanical  powers  of  the 
pickaxe  with  those  of  the  horse-harrow  of  modern 
husbandry.  The  weight  of  the  head,  placed  above 
these  downward  tusks,  would  add  to  their  efficiency  for 
the  service  here  supposed ;  as  the  power  of  the  harrow 
is  increased  by  being  loaded  with  weights. 

The  tusks  of  the  dinotherium  may  also,  he  adds, 
have  been  applied  with  mechanical  advantage  to  hook 
the  head  of  the  animal  to  the  bank,  with  the  nostrils 


156  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

sustained  above  the  water,  so  as  to  breathe  securely 
during  sleep,  whilst  the  body  remained  floating,  at  per- 
fect ease,  beneath  the  surface.  The  animal  might 
thus  repose,  moored  to  the  margin  of  a  lake  or  river, 
without  the  slightest  muscular  exertion,  the  weight  of 
the  head  and  body  tending  to  fix  and  keep  the  tusks 
fast  anchored  in  the  substance  of  the  bank;  as  the 
weight  of  the  body  of  a  sleeping  bird  keeps  the  claws 
clasped  firmly  around  its  perch.  These  tusks  might 
have  been  further  used,  like  those  in  the  upper  jaw  of 
the  walrus,  to  assist  in  dragging  the  body  out  of  the 
water;  also,  as  formidable  instruments  of  defence. 
The  great  length  of  the  body  of  the  animal  would  not 
have  been  inconvenient  to  him  living  in  the  water, 
but  would  have  been  attended  with  much  mechanical 
disadvantage  to  so  weighty  a  quadruped  on  land. 


Dinotherium. 


EARLY  PACHYDERMATA.  —  A  great  variety  of  fossil 
remains  of  animals  belonging  to  the  class  of  mam- 
malia have  been  discovered  in  the  mud  which  occu- 
pied the  area  of  the  city  of  Paris  and  vicinity,  called 


ORGANIC     REMAINS.  157 

the  basin  of  Paris.  The  -quarries  of  gypsum  spread 
over  Montmartre,  though  known  to  contain  fossil  bones, 
were  passed  comparatively  unnoticed  by  the  naturalists 
of  Paris,  till  Cuvier,  after  having  successfully  applied 
the  laws  of  comparative  anatomy  to  the  investigation  of 
fossil  elephants,  turned  his  attention  to  them.  He  now 
perceived  that  a  new  world  was  open  to  his  research- 
es, and,  by  his  zeal  and  energy,  soon  obtained  an  ex- 
tensive collection,  and  found  himself — to  use  his  own 
expression  —  in  a  charnel-house,  surrounded  by  a  mass 
of  broken  skeletons  of  a  great  variety  of  animals. 
To  arrange  each  fragment  in  its  proper  place,  and  to 
restore  order  to  these  heaps  of  ruins,  seemed,  at  first, 
a  hopeless  task ;  but  a  knowledge  of  the  immutable 
laws  by  which  the  organization  of  animal  existence  is 
governed  soon  enabled  him  to  assign  to  each  bone, 
and  even  fragment  of  bone,  its  proper  place  in  the 
skeleton,  and  the  forms  of  beings  hitherto  unseen  by 
mortal  eye  rose  before  him.  The  deduction  itself  is 
a  beautiful  specimen  of  the  application  of  science  to 
investigation  ;  and  the  splendid  triumph  which  followed 
his  perseverance  well  rewarded  his  skill  and  toil. 
"  I  cannot,"  remarks  this  illustrious  philosopher,  in  all 
the  enthusiasm  of  successful  genius,  "  express  my  de- 
light, on  finding  how  the  application  of  one  principle 
was  instantly  followed  by  the  most  triumphant  results. 
The  essential  character  of  a  tooth,  and  its  relation  to 
the  skull,  being  determined,  immediately  all  the  other 
elements  of  the  fabric  fell  into  their  places ;  and  the 
vertebrae,  ribs,  bones  of  the  legs,  thighs,  and  feet, 
seemed  to  arrange  themselves  even  without  my  bid- 
ding, and  precisely  in  the  manner  I  had  predicted." 


158 


ORGANIC     REMAINS. 


The  fossil  teeth,  on  being  examined,  exhibited  such  a 
form  and  structure  as  at  once  showed  that  the  animals 
must  have  belonged  to  the  herbivorous  tribe.  The 
following  engraving  will  give  some  idea  of  their  ap- 
pearance. 


1  Palaotherium  magnum.       3  Anoplotherium  gracile. 

2  Palaotkerium  minus.  4  Anoplolherium  commune. 

The  PalcEotherium  magnum  was  of  the  size  of  a 
horse,  but  thicker  and  more  clumsy  ;  its  head  was  mas- 
sive, and  its  legs  and  tail  were  short.  It  resembled  a 
large  tapir,  but  differed  somewhat  as  to  the  teeth,  and 
had  one  toe  less  on  the  fore-feet.  Its  height  was  prob- 
ably from  four  to  five  feet ;  about  equal,  it  is  said,  to 
that  of  the  rhinoceros  of  Java.  It  was,  no  doubt,  fur- 
nished, also,  with  a  short  proboscis  or  trunk. 

The  Palceot.herium  minus  was  smaller  in  size,  prob- 
ably not  larger  than  the  roebuck,  and  of  similar  form 
to  the  tapir.  It  had  light  and  slender  limbs. 

The  Anoplotherium  gracile  was  of  elegant  propor- 


OEGANIC    REMAINS.  159 

tions,  resembling  in  size  and  form  the  gazelle,  and 
must  have  lived  after  the  manner  of  the  deer  and 
antelope. 

The  Anoplotherium  commune  was  of  the  height  of 
the  wild  boar,  but  its  form  was  more  elongated ;  it 
had  a  long  and  thick  tail,  like  the  kangaroo ;  and  the 
feet  had  a  divided  hoof,  or  two  large  toes,  like  those 
of  ruminating  animals.  It  would  appear  to  have  been 
used  to  swimming,  and  probably  frequented  the  lakes, 
in  the  beds  of  which  its  bones  were  found.  Like  the 
anoplotherium  gracile,  it  was  destitute  of  canine  teeth ; 
whence  its  name,  which  signifies  unarmed  wild  beast, 
as  palceotherium  means  ancient,  wild  least.  Other  an- 
imals were  also  discovered  in  the  older  tertiary  forma- 
tions, and  named  by  Baron  Cuvier.  Of  these,  the 
Anthracotherium,  so  called  on  account  of  its  being 
found  in  anthracite  or  lignite,  held  an  intermediate 
place  between  the  hog  and  the  hippopotamus. 

PLANTS,  SHELLS,  INSECTS,  FISHES,  AND  BIRDS.  — 
The  remains  of  a  great  variety  of  these  are  also  found, 
as  having  been  in  existence  during  the  various  peri- 
ods of  the  tertiary  formation.  Some  of  them  are  of 
species  now  existing,  while  others  belong  to  extinct 
species.  A  few  of  these  may  be  briefly  noticed.  Of 
the  shells  called  jjoraminifera,  there  are  several  in- 
teresting species.  These  bodies  are  entirely  distinct 
from  the  testaceous  habitations  of  snails,  periwin- 
kles, &c. ;  they  are,  in  truth,  not  an  external,  but  an 
internal  apparatus;  and  it  is  supposed,  that,  in  addition 
to  their  having  served  as  a  point -of  attachment  and 
support  to  the  soft  body  of  the  animal,  they  acted  as 
a  buoy,  which  could  be  made  heavier  or  lighter  at 


160  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

pleasure,  and  by  which  the  animal  was  enabled  either 
to  sink  or  swim.  The  nummalite  —  so  called  from  its 
resemblance  to  a  coin  —  affords  a  beautiful  illustration 
of  the  structure  of  these  bodies.  It  has  a  disk-like  form, 
and  varies  from  the  microscopic  size  of  a  mere  point, 
to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter.  Its  outer  surface  is 
generally  smooth  and  marked  by  fine  waving  lines.  On 
splitting  the  shell,  it  is  found  to  consist  of  several  coils, 
divided  into  a  great  many  cells  or  chambers  by  cross 
partitions,  having  no  apparent  communication  with  each 
other,  but  which  the  creature  probably  had  the  power 
of  filling  with  fluid  or  air  through  the  foramina  or 
pores.  The  pyramids  of  Egypt  are  composed  of  lime- 
stone formed  of  nummalites,  which  Strabo  supposed 
to  have  been  lentils  scattered  about  by  the  workmen, 
and  afterwards  converted  into  stone !  Fossil  crabs  and 
fishes,  also,  are  found,  and  several  species  of  birds,  — 
as,  the  pelican,  sea-lark,  curlew,  woodcock,  buzzard, 
owl,  quail,  &c.  The  eggs,  too,  of  some  aquatic  species 
occur  in  the  lacustrine  limestone  of  Auvergne,  as  do 
those  of  turtles  of  recent  fprmation  on  the  island  of 
Ascension. 

We  cannot  give  a  better  view  of  the  organic  re- 
mains and  changes  of  the  tertiary  period,  a  portion, 
of  which  we  have  now  considered,,  than  by  employing 
the  language  of  Dr.  Mantell. 

In  the  pliocene,  or  newer  tertiary,  which  also  em- 
braces the  mammalian  epoch,  the  fossil  remains  in  the 
alluvial  deposits  afford  incontestable  proof,  that  the 
mammoth,  mastodon,  hippopotamus,  dinotherium,  and 
other  colossal  animals  of  extinct  species  and  genera, 
together  with  birds,  reptiles,  and  enormous  carnivora, 


ORGANIC   REMAINS.  161 

inhabited  such  districts  of  our  continents  as  were  then 
dry  land ;  while  the  older  tertiary,  or  eocene,  incloses 
the  bones  of  land  animals,  particularly  those  of  a  lacus- 
trine character,  which  approximate  to  certain  races  that 
now  exist  in  the  torrid  zone,  but  belong  to  extinct 
genera,  that  preceded  the  mammoth  and  the  mastodon. 

The  seas  and  lakes  of  that  remote  epoch  occupied 
areas  that  are  now  above  the  waters ;  and  rocks 
and  mountains,  hills  and  valleys,  streams  and  rivers, 
diversified  the  surface  of  countries  which  are  now 
destroyed  or  entirely  changed,  and  whose  past  ex- 
istence is  revealed  by  the  spoils  which  the  streams 
and  rivers  have  accumulated  in  the  ancient  lakes  and 
deltas.  The  ocean  abounded  in  mollusca,  Crustacea, 
and  fishes,  a  large  proportion  of  which  are  referable  to 
extinct  species.  Crocodiles,  turtles,  birds,  and  insects 
were  contemporary  with  the  palseotherium  and  anthra- 
cotherium  ;  and  animal  organization,  however  varied  in 
certain  types,  presented  the  same  general  outline  as  in 
modern  times;  the  extinction  of  species  and  genera 
being  then,  as  now,  in  constant  activity. 

The  vegetable  world  also  contained  the  same  great 
divisions ;  there  were  forests  of  oak,  elm,  and  beech  ; 
of  furs,  pines,  and  other  coniferous  trees ;  palms, 
tree-ferns,  and  the  principal  groups  of  modern  floras ; 
while  the  water,  both  salt  and  fresh,  teemed  with  the 
few  and  simple  forms  of  vegetable  structure  peculiar 
to  that  element.  The  state  of  the  inorganic  world  is 
not  less  manifest ;  the  abrasion  of  the  land  by  streams 
and  rivers,  —  the  destruction  of  the  sea-shore  by  the 
waves,  and  the  formation  of  basalt  and  shingle,  —  the 
desolation  inflicted  by  volcanic  eruptions,  —  all  these 
11 


162  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

operations  were  then,  as  now,  in  constant  action.  The 
bed  of  an  ancient  sea,  containing  myriads  of  the  re- 
mains of  fishes,  Crustacea,  and  shells,  now  forms  the 
site  of  the  capital  of  Great  Britain  ;  and  accumulations 
of  tropical  fruits  and  plants,  drifted  by  ancient  cur- 
rents from  other  climes,  constitute  islands  in  the  es- 
tuary of  the  Thames;  while  the  sediments  of  lakes 
and  gulfs,  teeming  with  the  skeletons  of  beings  which 
are  blotted  out  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  compose 
the  soil  of  the  metropolis  of  France. 

Although  the  changes  in  the  relative  level  of  the  land 
and  sea  during  this  epoch  were  numerous  and  extensive, 
yet  there  is  one  region  which  still  presents  traces  of 
its  original  physical  geography  ;  and  although  the  earth- 
quake has  rent  its  mountains  to  their  very  centre,  — 
though  hundreds  of  volcanoes  have  again  and  again 
spread  desolation  over  the  land,  and  inundations  and 
mountain  torrents  have  excavated  valleys,  and  check- 
ered the  plains  with  ravines  and  water-courses,  yet 
the  grand  primeval  features  of  that  country  remain ; 
and  we  can  trace  the  boundaries  of  its  ancient  lakes, 
and  the  succession  of  changes  it  has  undergone,  from 
the  first  outbreak  of  its  volcanoes,  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  present  state  of  repose. 

The  lowermost  lacustrine  deposits  in  Auvergne, 
which  are  spread  over  the  foundation  rock  of  granite, 
unmixed  with  igneous  productions,  mark  the  period 
antecedent  to  the  volcanic  era.  While  the  intrusions 
of  lava  and  scoriae  in  the  superincumbent  strata  de- 
note the  first  eruptions  of  Mont  d'Or,  the  succeed- 
ing period  of  tranquillity  is  recorded  in  characters  alike 
intelligible.  The  hard  deposition  of  calcareous  mud,  — 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  163 

the  incrustation  of  successive  generations  of  aquatic 
insects,  Crustacea,  and  mollusca,  and  we  may  even  add 
of  infusoria,  —  the  imbedding  of  the  bones  of  mam- 
malia, birds,  and  reptiles,  —  the  accumulation  of  lig- 
nite, and  other  vegetable  matter,  —  are  data  from 
which  we  may,  in  imagination,  restore  the  ancient 
country  of  Central  France. 

It  was  a  region  encircled  by  a  chain  of  granite 
mountains,  watered  by  numerous  streams  and  rivu- 
lets, and  possessing  lakes  of  vast  extent.  Its  soil  was 
covered  with  luxuriant  vegetation,  and  peopled  by  palaB- 
otheria,  anoplotheria,  and  other  terrestrial  mammalia  ; 
the  crocodile  and  turtle  found  shelter  in  its  marshes  and 
rivers  ;  aquatic  birds  frequented  its  fens,  and  sported 
over  the  surface  of  its  lakes ;  while  myriads  of  insects 
swarmed  in  the  air,  and  passed  through  their  wonder- 
ful metamorphoses  in  the  waters.  In  a  neighbouring 
region,  herds  of  ruminants,  and  other  herbivora,  of 
species  and  genera  now  no  more,  with  birds  and  rep- 
tiles, were  the  undisturbed  occupants  of  a  country 
abounding  in  palms  and  tree-ferns,  and  having  rivers 
and  lakes,  with  gulfs  which  teemed  with  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  sea ;  and  to  this  district  the  fiery  torrents 
of  the  volcano  did  not  extend. 

But  at  length  a  change  came  over  the  scene ;  vio- 
lent eruptions  burst  forth  from  craters  long  silent ; 
the  whole  country  was  laid  desolate ;  its  living  popu- 
lation was  swept  away ;  all  was  one  vast  waste  ;  and 
sterility  succeeded  to  the  former  luxuriance  of  life 
and  beauty.  Ages  rolled  by ;  the  mists  of  the  moun- 
tains and  the  rains  produced  new  springs,  torrents, 
and  rivers ;  a  fertile  soil  gradually  accumulated  over 


164  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

the  cooled  lava  currents  and  the  beds  of  sconse,  to 
which  the  sediments  of  the  ancient  lakes,  borne 
down  by  the  streams,  largely  contributed;  another 
vegetation  sprang  up  ;  the  mammoth  and  mastodon, 
with  enormous  deer  and  oxen,  now  quietly  browsed 
in  the  verdant  plains.  Other  changes  succeeded  ;  those 
colossal  forms  of  life  in  their  turn  passed  away,  and 
at  length  the  earlier  races  of  mankind  took  posses- 
sion of  a  country,  which  had  once  more  become  a 
scene  of  fertility  and  repose. 


ORGANIC    REMAINS    OF    THE     SECONDARY    FOR- 
MATIONS. 

OUR  attention  has  been  directed  thus  far  to  remains 
discovered  in  deposits  made  in  the  basins  of  lakes,  and 
estuaries,— such  materials  as  have  been  drifted  by  the 
action  of  rivers  and  inundations.  "  We  have  now," 
says  Dr.  Man  tell,  referring  to  the  subject  before  us, 
"  arrived  on  the  shores  of  that  ocean,  of  whose  spoils 
the  existing  islands  and  continents  are  principally 
composed ;  the  fathomless  depths  of  the  ancient  seas 
are  spread  before  us,  and  the  myriads  of  beings  which 
sported  in  their  waters,  and  lived  and  died  in  those 
profound  abysses,  remain,  like  the  mummies  of  ancient 
Egypt,  the  silent  yet  eloquent  teachers  of  their  own 
eventful  history.1' 

The  secondary  formation,  it  will  be  recollected,  em- 
braces several  principal  divisions,  forming  four  natu- 
ral groups,  —  the  cretaceous,  oolitic^  saliferous,  and 


Ichthyosaurus,  Plesiosaurus,  Pterodactyle,  $c.,  restored. 


Fossil  Tapir,  fyc. ,  restored. 


Fossil  Elephant. 


Fossils,  Megatherium,  Gigantic  Elk. 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  167 

carboniferous  systems.  The  period  which  we  are 
now  to  examine  has  been  fitly  denominated  the  Age  of 
Reptiles ;  and  the  organic  remains,  called  saurians, 
found  in  the  rocks,  have  justly  been  a  theme  of  wonder 
and  admiration.  These  belong  to  the  lizard  tribe, 
and  not  less  than  forty  species  have  been  discovered. 
They  are  sometimes  divided  into  the  marine,  amphib- 
ious, and  fying,  according  as  they  partake  of  the 
characters  thus  denoted. 

THE  MOSOSAURUS. — The  quarries  of  St.  Peter's  Moun- 
tain, near  Maestricht,  composed  of  chalk  and  calcare- 
ous freestone,  have  long  been  celebrated  for  their 
peculiar  fossils.  The  bones  and  teeth  of  an  un- 
known animal  having  been  found  there  in  1770,  M. 
Hoffmann,  who  was  collecting  specimens,  discovered 
one  which  consisted  of  the  jaws  of  an  enormous  ani- 
mal. He  had  the  mass  of  stone  containing  the  re- 
mains carefully  detached  from  the  rock,  watching 
over  the  operation  personally,  until  he  was  enabled  to 
take  it  home  in  triumph.  The  canon  of  the  cathe- 
dral which  stands  on  the  mountain,  however,  laid  claim 
to  it,  as  being  the  lord  of  the  manor,  and  succeeded 
in  wresting  it  out  of  M.  Hoffmann's  hands.  There  it 
remained  till  after  his  death.  The  French  Revolu- 
tion having  broke  out,  the  town  was  bombarded,  and 
a  committee  of  French  savans,  who  accompanied 
the  army,  having  carefully  shielded  that  part  of  the 
city  where  it  was  deposited  from  the  artillery,  sought 
earnestly  for  the  treasure.  The  canon  had  concealed 
it,  but  was  finally  forced  to  give  it  up  ;  and  the  French 
committee,  after  finding  the  relatives  of  the  deceased 
philosopher,  and  paying  for  it  a  fair  compensation, 


168  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

bore  it  away  to  Paris,  where  it  was  placed  in  the 
Jar  din  des  Plantes.  Here,  models  were  made  of  it, 
under  the  direction  of  Cuvier,  and  sent  to  various 
museums  ;  the  original  still  remaining  in  the  collection 
of  that  institution. 

The  animal  was  a  reptile,  probably  about  twenty-five 
feet  long,  holding  an  intermediate  place  between  the 
monitor  and  the  iguana,  different  species  of  the  lizard 
tribe.  It  was  furnished  with  a  tail,  which,  by  its  oar- 
like  application,  enabled  the  creature  to  stem  the 
waves  of  the  ocean,  which  Cuvier  supposed  it  to  have 
inhabited.  It  had  paddles  instead  of  legs,  and  the 
number  of  vertebrae  was  one  hundred  and  thirty-three. 
The  most  skilful  anatomist,  says  Dr.  Buckland,  would 
be  at  a  loss  to  devise  a  series  of  modifications  by 
which  the  monitor  could  be  enlarged  to  the  length  and 
bulk  of  a  grampus,  and  at  the  same  time  be  fitted  to 
move  with  strength  and  rapidity  through  the  waters  of 
the  sea ;  yet  in  the  fossil  before  us  Ave  shall  find  the 
genuine  character  of  the  monitor  maintained  through- 
out the  whole  skeleton,  with  such  deviations  only  as 
tended  to  fit  the  animal  for  its  marine  existence. 

Specimens  of  the  vertebrae  and  teeth  have  also  been 
found  in  other  places,  showing  that  the  ocean  of  the 
chalk  formation  was  not  confined  to  one  place,  but 
reached  over  the  area  now  occupied  by  the  Atlantic. 

ICHTHYOSAURUS.  —  Some  of  the  most  remarkable 
specimens  of  the  reptiles  known  by  the  name  ofsaurians 
have  been  assigned  to  a  genus  called  the  ichthyosaurus 
orjish-lizard.  There  are  seven  or  eight  known  species 
of  this  genus,  all  agreeing  with  one  another  in  the 
general  principles  of  their  construction.  This  reptile, 


ORGANIC     REMAINS.  IbV 

which  was  sometimes  more  than  thirty  feet  long,  had 
the  snout  of  a  porpoise,  the  teeth  of  a  crocodile,  — 
often  amounting  to  one  hundred  and  eighty,  —  the 
head  of  a  lizard,  the  sternum  or  breast-bone  of  the 
ornithorhynchus,  the  paddles  of  a  whale,  and  the  ver- 
tebra? of  a  true  fish.  It  thus  combined  in  itself  the 
mechanical  contrivances  belonging  to  individuals  in  the 
three  separate  classes  of  the  animal  kingdom.  The 
position  of  the  nostril  was  not,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
crocodile,  near  the  point  of  the  snout ;  but  it  was  set  as 
in  the  lizard,  near  the  front  angle  of  the  orbit  of  the  eye. 
The  eye  was  of  enormous  size,  far  beyond  that  of  any 
living  animal,  —  in  one  species,  the  space  of  the  orbit 
being  fourteen  inches  in  its  longest  direction.  It  was 
so  constructed,  therefore,  as  to  admit  a  great  quantity 
of  light,  and  the  power  of  vision  must  have  been  un- 
common. Besides  this,  it  is  evident  that  it  must  have 
possessed  both  microscopic  and  telescopic  powers.  On 
the  front  of  the  orbital  cavity  in  which  the  eye  was 
placed,  a  circular  series  of  petrified,  thin,  bony  plates 
were  placed  around  a  central  opening,  where  was  the 
pupil.  These  plates,  so  arranged,  by  their  retraction 
pressed  forward  the  front  of  the  eye,  and  thus  convert- 
ed it  into  a  microscope  ;  and  when  the  eye  was  at 
rest,  by  resuming  their  position,  they  formed  it  into,  a 
telescope. 

This  singular  provision  shows  that  the  enormous 
eye  must  have  been  an  instrument  of  very  great  and 
varied  power,  by  which  the  ichthyosaurus  could  see  to 
a  great  distance,  and  could  discern  its  prey  in  the  ob- 
scurity of  the  night,  or  at  the  depths  of  the  sea.  Its  jaws 
were  sometimes  more  than  six  feet  long,  and,  as  in  the 


170  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

case  of  the  crocodile  and  lizard,  were  composed  of 
many  thin  plates,  so  arranged  as  to  combine  elasticity 
and  lightness  with  strength.  To  avoid  the  danger  of 
fracture,  to  which  it  would  have  been  liable  had  the  jaw 
been  a  single  bone,  each  side  of  the  lower  jaw  was 
made  up  of  six  separate  pieces,  set  in  a  peculiar  man- 
ner ;  something  like  the  method  often  practised  in 
binding  together  parallel  plates  of  wood  or  steel,  to 
make  a  crossbow,  or  the  springs  of  a  carriage ;  the 
plates  being  most  numerous  where  the  strength  was 
required  to  be  exerted.  The  vertebral  column  was 
composed  of  more  than  one  hundred  joints,  which  gave 
the  creature  great  strength,  elasticity,  and  power  of 
motion.  Its  ribs  were  slender,  and  so  arranged  as  to 
enable  the  animal  to  introduce  into  its  body  an  unusual 
quantity  of  air ;  so  that  it  could  remain  long  under 
water,  without  coming  up  to  the  surface  for  the  pur- 
pose of  breathing.  A  large  animal,  moving  rapidly 
through  the  water,  and  breathing,  must  have  differed  in 
its  fore-leg  from  the  lizard  tribe.  Accordingly  we  find 
its  feet  converted  into  fins  or  paddles,  of  which,  like  the 
turtle,  it  had  four,  composed  of  numerous  bones  envel- 
oped in  one  fold,  so  as  to  appear  like  a  fin.  The  inter- 
nal structure  of  these  paddles,  therefore,  resembled  the 
paws  of  turtles,  having  the  short  and  strong  bones  of 
the  arm,  and  those  of  the  fore-arm,  and  beyond  these 
the  series  of  polygonal  bones  that  made  up  the  phalan- 
ges of  the  fingers.  The  hind-paddles  were  nearly  one 
half  smaller  than  those  in  front.  The  skin  of  the 
ichthyosaurus  was  naked ;  his  food  was  fish,  and  even 
the  young  of  his  own  species,  —  the  remains  of  these 
having  been  found  in  its  feces  or  coprolites. 


ORGANIC     REMAINS. 


171 


PLESIOSATJRUS. — This  was  one  of  the  most  remarka- 
ble animals  that  have  yet  been  discovered.  Indeed, 
Cuvier  asserts  that  the  structure  is  the  most  heteroclite, 
and  its  character  altogether  the  most  monstrous,  that 
has  yet  been  found  amid  the  ruins  of  a  former  world. 


Impression  of  the  Plesiosaurus. 

To  the  head  of  the  lizard  it  united  the  teeth  of  the 
crocodile,  a  neck  of  enormous  length,  resembling  the 
body  of  a  serpent,  a  trunk  and  tail  having  the  proper- 
tigns  of  an  ordinary  quadruped,  with  paddles  like  those 
of  the  turtle  or  whale.  Six  species  or  more  have  been 
discovered,  having  a  general  structure  like  the  ichthyo- 
saurus. It  differs,  however,  in  the  vertebrae,  which  are 
larger  and  less  concave  ;  and  the  ribs,  which  are  con- 
nected by  peculiar  processes,  are  said  to  present  a 
striking  resemblance  to  those  of  the  chameleon.  A 
skeleton  is  to  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum,  eleven 
feet  long,  and  so  nearly  perfect,  that  the  form  of  the 
original  creature  may  be  readily  traced.  It  was  prob- 
ably carnivorous,  and  lived  in  shallow  seas  and  estua- 
ries, and  breathed  the  air  like  the  ichthyosaurus  and 


172  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

our  modern  cetacea.  The  vertebrae  of  the  neck  are 
about  thirty-three,  equal  to  those  of  the  longest-necked 
bird,  the  swan.  This  neck  was  probably  of  great  use 
in  aiding  it  to  seize  upon  fish  beneath  the  waters,  and 
perhaps  flying  reptiles  and  insects.  Its  tail  was  so 
short  that  it  could  not  have  been  used  like  the  tail  of 
fishes  to  impel  the  creature  rapidly  forward,  but  was 
doubtless  employed  as  a  rudder  to  steer  him  when 
swimming,  as  well  as  to  raise  or  depress  him  when  as- 
cending or  descending  in  the  water.  As  it  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  provided  with  means  of  defence, 
it  had  probably  to  seek  its  food,  as  well  as  its  safety, 
chiefly  by  artifice  and  concealment.  Dr.  Buckland 
suggests,  that  it  may  have  been  a  kind  of  submarine 
chameleon,  possessing  the  power  of  altering  its  skin 
by  the  varied  intensity  of  its  inspirations  ;  and  that  this 
property  would  have  been  of  much  advantage  to  the 
animal  in  concealing  it  from  its  most  formidable  enemy, 
the  ichthyosaurus,  with  which  it  could  not  contend,  and 
from  which  its  slow  locomotive  powers  would  not  en- 
able it  to  escape.  Mr.  Conybeare,  after  considering  ^ill 
the  characteristics  of  the  animal,  draws  the  following 
inferences  with  respect  to  the  habits  of  the  plesiosau- 
rus.  That  it  was  aquatic  is  evident  from  the  form  of 
its  paddles  ;  that  it  was  marine  is  almost  equally  so, 
from  the  remains  with  which  it  is  universally  associ- 
ated ;  that  it  may  have  occasionally  visited  the  shore, 
the  resemblance  of  its  extremities  to  those  of  the  turtle 
may  lead  us  to  conjecture  ;  its  motion,  however,  must 
have  been  awkward  on  land,  and  its  long  neck  must 
have  impeded  its  progress  through  the  water, —  present- 
ing a  striking  contrast  to  the  organization  which  so 


ORGANIC     REMAINS.  173 

admirably  fitted  the  ichthyosaurus  to  cut  through  the 
waves.  May  it  not,  therefore,  be  concluded  —  since, 
in  addition  to  these  circumstances,  its  respiration  must 
have  required  a  frequent  access  of  air —  that  it  swam 
upon  or  near  the  surface ;  arching  its  long  neck  like 
the  swan,  and  occasionally  darting  it  down  at  the  fish 
which  happened  to  float  within  its  reach  ?  It  may,  per- 
haps, have  lurked  in  shoal  water  along  the  coast,  con- 
cealed among  the  sea-weed,  and,  raising  its  nostrils 
to  a  level  with  the  surface  from  a  considerable  depth, 
have  found  a  secure  retreat  from  the  assaults  of  dan- 
gerous enemies.  The  length  and  flexibility  of  its  neck 
may  have  compensated  for  the  want  of  strength  in  its 
jaws  and  its  incapacity  for  swift  motion  through  the 
water,  by  enabling  it  to  make  a  sudden  and  effective 
attack  on  every  animal  fitted  for  its  prey,  which  came 
within  its  reach. 

HYL.EOSAURUS. —  The  remains  of  this  reptile  were 
discovered  by  Dr.  Mantell,  in  the  summer  of  1832,  in 
the  limestone  of  Tilgate  forest.  He  denominated  it 
the  hylaosaurus,  or  lizard  of  the  weald  or  wood,  be- 
cause it  was  found  in  the  wealden  formation.  It  blends 
the  osteology  of  the  crocodile  with  thai  of  the  lizard, 
and  was  probably  about  twenty-five  feet  long.  Its 
most  peculiar  characteristic  is  stated  to  have  consisted 
in  a  series  of  long,  flat,  and  pointed  bones,  which  seem 
to  have  formed  an  enormous  fringe,  like  the  horny 
spines  on  the  back  of  the  modern  iguana  or  lizard. 
These  bones  vary  in  length  from  five  to  seventeen 
inches,  and  in  width  from  three  to  seven  inches  and  a 
half  at  the  base.  Large  thick  scales  were  also  found 
together  with  these,  which  probably  were  lodged  in  th 
skin. 


174  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

MEGALOSATJRUS.  —  This  was  a  gigantic  reptile  of 
the  lizard  tribe,  probably  measuring  from  forty  to  fifty 
feet  in  length,  partaking  of  the  structure  both  of  the 
crocodile  and  the  monitor.  No  skeleton  of  it  has  yet 
been  discovered  entire,  but  so  many  perfect  bones  and 
teeth  have  been  found,  that  the  form  and  dimensions  of 
its  limbs  are  well  known.  It  was  evidently  fitted,  from 
the  character  of  its  feet,  to  move  on  land,  as  the  hol- 
lows of  the  bones  were  filled  with  marrow.  The  form 
of  its  teeth,  flat  pointed,  curving  back  in  the  form  of  a 
pruning-knife,  and  the  inner  edge  deeply  seated  down 
to  the  base,  thus  combining  the  powers  of  the  knife, 
sabre,  and  saw,  shows  it  to  have  been  carnivorous  ;  and 
it  probably  fed  on  smaller  reptiles,  as  crocodiles  and 
tortoises,  the  remains  of  which  are  found  with  its  bones. 
The  shape  of  the  head  indicates  it  to  have  terminated 
in  a  long  and  narrow  snout. 

IGUANODON.  —  Associated  with  the  various  mem- 
bers of  the  saurian  family  we  have  now  mentioned, 
Dr.  Mantell  discovered  also  in  Tilgate  forest  the  re- 
mains of  a  still  more  gigantic  reptile,  of  the  herbivorous 
class,  and  more  nearly  allied  to  the  living  iguana  of  the 
warm  climates.  From  the  resemblance  of  its  teeth  to 
those  of  the  iguana,  he  gave  it  the  significant  name 
of  iguanodon,  or  the  animal  with  teeth  like  the  iguana. 
Dr.  Mantell's  own  account,  as  given  in  his  "  Wonders 
of  Geology,"  is,  that  the  discovery  of  a  mutilated  tooth 
led  him  to  suspect  the  existence  of  a  gigantic  herbiv- 
orous animal,  which  later  researches  confirmed.  The 
fossil  in  question  was  a  portion  of  the  crown  of  a  tooth, 
resembling,  in  its  form,  the  incisor  or  cutting  tooth  of 
one  of  the  herbivorous  mammalia.  The  enamel  was 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  175 

thick  in  front  and  thin  behind,  and  by  this  means  a 
sharp  cutting  edge  was  maintained  in  every  stage.  The 
structure  of  the  tooth,  therefore,  and  its  worn  surface, 
proved  that  it  was  to  be  referred  to  a  species  that  fed 
on  vegetables ;  the  absence  of  a  fang,  and  the  appear- 
ance of  the  base,  not  broken,  but  indented,  showed 
that  the  shank  had  been  absorbed,  from  the  pressure  of 
a  new  tooth  which  had  grown  up  and  supplanted  the 
old  one.  The  teeth,  when  perfect,  are  of  the  prismatic 
form,  and  remarkable  for  the  prominent  ridges  which 
extend  down  the  front,  and  the  serrated  margins  of 
the,  crown.  Examined  by  a  powerful  microscope, 
the  ivory  in  the  teeth  of  the  iguanodon  is  found  to  be 
composed  of  close-set  tubes,  radiating  in  a  wavy  course 
from  the  cavity  of  the  tooth  to  the  surface.  These 
characteristics  of  the  tooth  being  settled,  it  became 
necessary  to  find  the  requisite  analogies,  in  order  to 
know  how  to  class  the  animal  to  which  it  belonged. 
These,  after  long  research,  were  found  in  the  teeth  of 
the  iguana,  an  animal  of  the  lizard  tribe,  from  three  to 
five  feet  in  length,  still  living  in  many  parts  of  America 
and  the  West  Indies.  The  iguana  feeds  on  insects  and 
vegetables,  climbing  trees  and  chipping  off  the  tender 
shoots ;  and  nestles  in  the  hollows  of  rocks,  depositing 
its  eggs,  like  the"  turtle,  in  the  sands  or  the  banks 
of  rivers.  The  teeth  of  the  iguana  differ  from  those 
of  the  iguanodon  in  one  respect,  however,  namely, 
that  they  never  present  a  worn  surface  ;  they  are 
broken  or  chipped  off  by  use,  but  not  ground  smooth, 
as  in  the  herbivorous  animals.  Not  being  furnished 
with  cheeks,  or  a  movable  covering  for  the  jaws,  they 
seize  on  their  prey  or  food  and  swallow  it  whole  with- 


176  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

out  mastication.  So  great  a  similarity  in  the  teeth  and 
the  mode  of  dentition  was  found  to  exist  between  the 
fossil  and  the  living  animal,  that  Dr.  Mantell  felt  justi- 
fied in  giving  it  a  name  indicating  such  a  resemblance. 
Subsequently,  another  collection  of  bones  of  this  an- 
imal was  discovered,  which  Dr.  Mantell  developed 
and  joined  together.  These  included  two  thigh-bones, 
each  thirty-three  inches  long;  one  leg-bone,  thirty 
inches  long ;  bones  of  the  toes  and  claws ;  a  bone  of 
the  fore-arm  ;  several  belonging  to  the  spine  and  tail ; 
collar-bones ;  others  which  seemed  to  belong  to  the 
pelvis,  &c.  From  these  he  was  enabled  to  form  more 
accurate  conclusions  as  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  and  its 
habits.  The  following,  he  remarks,  is  the  result  of  a 
careful  comparison  of  some  of  the  fossil-bones  with 
the  corresponding  ones  of  the  iguana,  made  with  the 
view  of  ascertaining  the  probable  average  size  of  the 
original  animal.  We  should  bear  in  mind  that  some 
individuals  must  have  exceeded  this  estimate,  and,  if 
they  bore  the  proportion  of  the  recent  iguana,  must 
have  been  upwards  of  one  hundred  feet  in  length. 
Length  of  the  iguanodon,  from  the  snout  to  the  tip  of 

the  tail,  -        »-«U*';        70  feet. 

Length  of  the  head,  -  -  4|  " 

Length  of  the  body,    -  -  -  13     " 

Length  of  the  tail,  -  -  -      52|  " 

Height,  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  head,  9 
Circumference  of  the  body,  -  -       14^ 

Length  of  the  thigh  and  leg,    -  8 

Circumference  of  the  thigh  and  leg,  -        7| 

Length  of  the  hind  foot,  from  the  heel  to  the 

point  of  the  long  toe,  -  -        6| 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  177 

The  iguanodon  had  also  a  horn,  composed  of  bone, 
four  inches  high  and  of  an  irregular  form.  In  this  re- 
spect, too,  there  is  an  analogy  with  the  iguana,  which, 
besides  the  spiny  processes  on  the  back,  has  warts  or 
homy  protuberances  on  the  head  and  snout. 

Respecting  the  condition  and  habits  of  the  iguano- 
don, it  is  inferred,  that,  as  the  iguana  now  inhabits 
only  the  warmest  regions  of  the  earth,  probably  a 
torrid  climate  once  prevailed  in  the  now  temperate 
regions  of  the  southern  coast  of  England,  where  these 
bones  have  been  discovered.  The  large  bones  hav- 
ing been  evidently  filled  with  marrow,  this,  with  the 
form  of  the  bones  of  the  feet,  shows  that  this  animal, 
like  the  megalosaurus,  was  adapted  and  designed  to 
move  on  the  land.  Its  teeth,  also,  show  that  they  were 
remarkably  fitted  for  cropping  tough  vegetable  food, 
such  as  the  clatharia,  and  similar  plants,  which  are 
found  buried  with  its  bones.  As  the  iguana  lives 
chiefly  upon  vegetables,  it  is  furnished  with  long  and 
slender  feet,  by  which  it  is  enabled  to  climb  trees 
with  facility  in  search  of  food  ;  but  no  tree  could  have 
borne  the  weight  of  the  colossal  iguanodon.  Its  move- 
ments must  have  been  confined  to  the  land  and  water, 
and  it  is  evident  that  its  enormous  bulk  must  have 
required  limbs  of  great  strength.  Accordingly,  we  find 
that  the  hind  feet,  as  in  the  hippopotamus,  rhinoceros, 
and  other  large  mammalia,  were  composed  of  strong, 
short,  massy  bones,  furnished  with  claws,  not  hooked  as 
in  the  iguana,  but  compressed  as  in  land  tortoises; 
thus  forming  a  powerful  support  for  the  enormous  leg 
and  thigh.  But  the  bones  of  the  hands  or  fore-feet 
are  analogous  to  those  of  the  iguana,  —  long,  slender, 
12 


178  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

flexible,  and  armed  with  curved  claws,  the  exact  coun- 
terpart of  the  nail-bones  of  the  recent  animal,  thus 
furnishing  prehensile  instruments  fitted  to  seize  the 
palms,  arborescent  ferns,  and  dragon-blood  plants, 
which  probably  constituted  the  food  of  the  iguanodon. 
PTERODACTYLS.  —  "Among  the  most  remarkable  dis- 
closures made  by  the  researches  of  geology," .  says 
Dr.  Buckland, "  we  may  rank  the  flying  reptiles  which 
have  been  ranged  by  Cuvier  under  the  genus  ptero- 
dactyle,  a  genus  presenting  more  singular  combinations 
of  form  than  we  find  in  any  other  creatures  yet  dis- 
covered amid  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  earth." 


Pterodactyle. 

So  peculiar  and  strange  is  the  structure  of  these  ani- 
mals, that  the  first  specimen  discovered  was  classed  by 
one  naturalist  as  a  bird,  by  another  as  a  species  of  bat, 
and  by  yet  a  third  as  a  flying  reptile.  The  creature, 
indeed,  combines  certain  characteristics  of  all  three. 
The  head,  and  the  length  of  the  neck,  resemble  those 
of  a  bird ;  its  wings,  in  proportion  and  form,  are  like 
those  of  the  bat ;  while  the  body  and  tail  approximate 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  179 

in  form  to  4he  body  and  tail  of  the  mammalia.  The 
skull,  also,  is  small,  and  furnished  with  a  beak  which 
has  not  less  than  sixty  pointed  teeth.  These  singular 
characteristics,  so  puzzling  to  investigators,  it  was  re- 
served for  the  genius  of  Cuvier  to  reconcile.  He  ranks 
the  pterodactyles  among  the  most  extraordinary  of  all 
extinct  animals ;  and  if  we  could  see  them  restored  to 
life,  they  would  strike  us  as  being  singularly  unlike  any 
thing  that  exists  in  the  present  world.  Eight  species 
have  been  discovered,  varying  from  the  size  of  a  snipe 
to  that  of  a  cormorant.  In  external  form,  the  creature 
bore  a  resemblance  to  the  bat  or  vampire.  The  snout 
was  elongated  like  that  of  the  crocodile,  and  armed 
with  conical  teeth.  The  eye,  as  appears  from  the 
orbit,  must  have  been  of  enormous  size,  thus  fitting 
them,  like  the  bat,  to  fly  by  night.  They  resem- 
bled the  bat  also  in  having  fingers,  terminating  with 
long  hooks,  which  projected  from  their  wings.  They 
were  thus  furnished  with  a  powerful  paw,  which  en- 
abled them  to  creep,  or  climb,  or  hang  from  the  trees. 
It  is  thought,  also,  that  the  pterodactyle,  like  the  vam- 
pire bat  of  the  island  of  Bonin,  possessed  the  power 
of  swimming. 

As  the  creature  had  wings,  it  was  natural  to  look  for 
the  structure  of  the  bird  or  bat  in  the  bones.  The 
beak,  however,  had  teeth,  and  the  form  of  a  single 
bone  enabled  Cuvier  to  decide  that  the  animal  belonged 
to  the  lizard  tribe,  so  that  it  was  a  kind  of  flying  rep- 
tile. The  vertebrae  of  the  neck,  also,  are  to  those  of 
birds  only  as  six  or  seven  to  from  nine  to  twenty-three, 
while  those  of  the  back  are  in  the  reverse  proportion  ; 
the  ribs,  too,  like  those  of  the  lizard,  are  thin  and 


180  OHGANIC     REMAINS. 

thread -shaped,  and  thus  differ  from  thoseof  birds,  as 
do  the  bones  of  the  feet  and  toes.  They  are  supposed 
to  have  fed  on  insects,  and  the  presence  of  large  fossil 
dragon-flies  and  other  insects  in  the  same  quarries 
where  the  pterodactyles  are  found  proves  that  they 
existed  at  the  same  period,  and  probably  formed  a  por- 
tion of  their  food.  They  may  also  have  fed  on  fish, 
and  some  of  the  small  marsupial  animals,  or  those  of 
the  opossum  kind,  which  then  existed  on  the  earth. 
The  creature  was  evidently  capable  of  perching  on 
trees,  or  standing  firmly  on  the  ground  ;  and,  by  fold- 
ing' its  wings,  could  hop  or  walk  like  a  bird. 

Dr.  Buckland,  alluding  to  the  peculiarities  of  the 
pterodactyle  and  the  age  in  which  it  lived,  says : 
"  Thus,  like  Milton's  fiend,  all  qualified  for  all  services 
and  all  elements,  the  creature  was  a  fit  companion 
for  the  kindred  reptiles  that  swarmed  in  the  seas 
or  crawled  on  the  shores  of  a  turbulent  planet. 

•  The  fiend, 

O'er  bog,  or  steep,  through  straight,  rough,  dense,  or  rare, 
With  head,  hands,  wings,  or  feet,  pursues  his  way, 
And  swims,  or  wades,  or  creeps,  or  flies.'  * 

"  With  flocks  of  such  creatures  flying  in  the  air, 
and  shoals  of  no  less  monstrous  ichthyosauri  and  plesi- 
osauri  swarming  in  the  ocean,  and  tortoises  crawling 
on  the  shores  of  the  primeval  lakes  and  rivers,  —  air, 
sea,  and  land  must  have  been  strangely  tenanted  in 
these  early  periods  of  our  infant  world." 

In  speaking  of  this  age  of  reptiles,  the  period  of  the 
iguanodon,  Dr.  Mantell  says:  —  "The  country  it  in- 

*  Paradise  Lost,  Book  II.,  line  947. 


OEGANIC    REMAINS.  181 

habited  must  have  been  diversified  by  hill  and  dale,  by 
streams  and  torrents,  the  tributaries  of  its  mighty 
rivers.  Arborescent  ferns,  palms,  and  yuccas  consti- 
•  tuted  its  groves  and  forests  ;  delicate  ferns  and  grasses, 
the  vegetable  clothing  of  its  soil ;  and  in  its  marshes, 
equiseta,  and  plants  of  a  like  nature,  prevailed.  It  was 
peopled  by  enormous  reptiles,  among  which  the  colos- 
sal iguanodon  and  the  megalosaurus  were  the  chief. 
Crocodiles  and  turtles,  flying  reptiles  and  birds,  fre- 
quented its  fens  and  rivers,  and  deposited  their  eggs  on 
the  banks  and  shoals  ;  and  its  waters  teemed  with. liz- 
ards, fishes,  and  mollusca.  But  there  is  no  evidence 
that  man  ever  set  his  foot  upon  that  wondrous  soil,  or 
that  any  of  the  animals  which  are  his  contemporaries 
found  there  a  habitation  ;  on  the  contrary,  not  only  is 
evidence  of  their  existence  altogether  wanting,  but, 
from  numberless  observations  made  in  every  part  of 
the  globe,  there  are  conclusive  reasons  to  infer  that 
man  and  the  existing  races  of  animals  were  not  cre- 
ated till  myriads  of  years  after  the  destruction  of  the 
iguanodon  country,  —  a  country  which  language  can 
but  feebly  portray,  but  which  the  magic  pencil  of  a 
Martin,  by  the  aid  of  geological  research,  has  rescued 
from  the  oblivion  of  the  past,  and  placed  before  us 
in  all  the  hues  of  nature,  with  its  appalling  dragon 
forms,  its  forests  of  palms  and  tree-ferns,  and  the 
luxuriant  vegetation  of  a  tropical  clime." 

FOSSIL  FOOTPRINTS.  —  Another  most  interesting  and 
comparatively  still  more  recent  branch  of  palaeontolo- 
gy is  that  variously  known  by  the  names  of  ichnology 
or  ichnolithology,  or  the  history  of  fossil  footprints. 
These  are  of  various  kinds,  and  are  found  to  have  been 


182  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

evidently  made  during  the  period  of  the  new  red  sand- 
stone formation.  The  first  cases  discovered  seem  to 
have  been  those  of  which  an  account  was  given  in  the 
"  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh," 
for  1828.  Tracks  or  foot-marks  of  some  animal, 
with  drawings  of  the  same,  are  there  given,  as  they 
appear  impressed  on  red  sandstone  in  the  quarry  of 
Corn  Cockle  Muir,  in  Dumfriesshire,  Scotland.  The 
strata  which  bear  them  lie  in  successive  layers  to  the 
depth  of  forty-five  feet ;  and  after  removing  one 
large  slab  containing  them,  at  a  few  feet,  or  perhaps 
inches,  below,  would  be  found  still  another,  exhibit- 
ing similar  impressions.  They  traverse  the  rock  in  a 
direction  either  up  or  down,  and  not  across  the  sur- 
faces of  the  strata,  which  are  inclined  at  an  angle  of 
thirty-eight  degrees.  On  one  slab  there  are  twenty- 
four  continuous  impressions  of  feet,  forming  a  regular 
track  with  six  distinct  repetitions  of  the  mark  of  each 
foot,  the  fore-foot  being  differently  shaped  from  the 
hind-foot ;  the  marks  of  the  claws  are  also  very  dis- 
tinct. By  a  comparison  of  these  tracks  with  those 
made  by  different  living  species  of  the  tortoise,  it  has 
been  considered  probable  that  they  were  made  by 
the  feet  of  land  tortoises.  Other  foot-tracks  of  small 
animals  were  found,  in  1831,  in'  the  layers  of  forest 
marble  north  of  Bath,  in  England.  They  are  said 
to  occur  along  with  ripple-marks,  and  were  probably 
made  by  some  species  of  Crustacea  crawling  along  the 
bottom  of  an  estuary.  The  impression  of  the  tail 
and  part  of  the  body  is  sometimes  to  be  seen  between 
the  tracks. 

In  1834,  a  similar  discovery  was  published,  of  some 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  183 

remarkable  fossil  footmarks  found  in  Saxony,  at  the 
village  of  Hessburg  near  Hildburghausen.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  account  given  of  them  by  Dr.  Hohnbaum 
and  Professor  Kaup.  "The  impressions  of  the  feet 
are  partly  hollow,  and  partly  in  relief;  all  the  depres- 
sions are  upon  the  upper  surfaces  of  the  slabs  of  sand- 
stone, whilst  the  reliefs  are  only  upon  the  lower  sur- 
faces, covering  those  which  bear  the  depressions. 
These  reliefs  are  natural  casts,  formed  in  the  subja- 
cent footsteps,  as  in  moulds.  On  one  slab  six  feet 
long  by  five  feet  wide,  there  occur  many  footsteps  of 
more  than  one  animal,  and  of  various  sizes.  The 
larger  impressions,  which  seem  to  be  of  the  hind-foot, 
are  eight  inches  long,  and  five  wide.  One  was  twelve 
inches  long.  Near  to  each  large  footstep,  and  at  a  regu- 
lar distance  of  an  inch  and  a  half  before  it,  is  a  smaller 
print  of  a  fore-foot,  four  inches  long,  and  three  inches 
wide.  These  footsteps  follow  one  another  in  pairs,  at 
intervals  of  fourteen  inches  from  pair  to  pair,  each 
pair  being  in  the  same  line.  Both  large  and  small 
steps  have  the  great  toes  alternately  on  the  right  and 
left  side ;  each  has  the  print  of  five  toes,  and  the  first 
or  great  toe  is  bent  inwards  like  a  thumb.  The  fore 
and  hind  foot  are  nearly  similar  in  form,  though  they 
differ  so  greatly  in  size."  On  the  same  slab  are  other 
tracks  of  smaller  and  differently  shaped  feet,  armed 
tvith  nails,  which  resemble  the  tracks  on  the  sand- 
stone of  Dumfries,  and  were  evidently  made  by  the 
tortoise. 

Professor  Kaup  proposed  the  provisional  name  of 
cheirotherium,  —  from  the  obvious  resemblance  of  the 
marks  to  the  impression  of  a  human  hand, — as  a  name 


184  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

to  be  given  to  the  unknown  animal  that  formed  them , 
and  he  conjectured  that  the  creature  was  allied  to  the 
tribe  of  marsupial  animals  ;  since,  in  the  kangaroo,  the 
first  toe  is  set  obliquely  to  the  others,  like  a  thumb ; 
and  the  disproportion  between  the  hind  and  fore  feet  is 
also  very  great. 

Professor  Owen,  having  directed  his  attention  to 
these  footsteps,  as  well  as  to  some  remains  of  reptiles, 
consisting  of  bones  and  teeth,  has  come  to  the  con- 
clusion, which  is  considered  a  more  probable  one,  that 
the  tracks  in  question  were  made,  not  by  an  animal  of 
the  marsupial  class,  but  by  a  batrachian  order  of  rep- 
tiles, or  a  species  of  gigantic  frog,  to  which  he  has 
given  the  name  of  labyrinthodon.  The  footprints,  it 
is  observed,  are  more  like  those  of  toads  than  of  any 
other  living  animal.  The  size  of  the  three  species  of 
the  labyrinthodon  corresponds  with  that  of  the  three 
different  kinds  of  footsteps  supposed  to  belong  to  three 
different  individuals  of  the  cheirotherium.  The  struc- 
ture of  the  nasal  cavity,  also,  shows  the  labyrintho- 
don to  have  been  an  air-breathing  reptile ;  as  the 
posterior  outlets  were  at  the  back  part  of  the  mouth, 
instead  of  being  directly  under  the  anterior  or  exter- 
nal nostrils.  Five  species  have  already  been  deter- 
mined, to  which  appropriate  names  have  been  applied. 
Although  the  general  characteristics  evince  that  it 
was  a  batrachian  reptile,  or  one  of  the  frog  kind,  yet 
Professor  Owen  considers  that  it  must  have  been  quite 
distinct  from  any  such  reptile  now  known,  in  the 
form  of  its  feet,  and  the  teeth. 

About  the  same  time  that  the  singular  tracks  above 
mentioned  were  discovered  in  Germany,  another  kind 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  185 

of  very  distinct  footsteps,  resembling  those  of  birds, 
was  discovered,  also  in  red  sandstone,  in  the  valley  of 
the  Connecticut  River ;  and  an  account  of  seven  species 
was  given  by  Professor  Hitchcock,  in  the  "  American 
Journal  of  Science,"  for  January,  1836,  in  which  the 
name  ornilhichnites,  or  stony  bird-track,  was  applied  to 
them.  Some  of  them  were  quite  small,  the  toes  being 
not  more  than  half  an  inch  long,  and  the  whole  track 
but  about  three  or  four  inches.  Others,  however,  were 
of  an  enormous  size,  the  foot  being  not  less  than 
seventeen  inches  long,  including  the  claw  of  two 
inches,  and  the  steps  from  four  to  six  feet,  propor- 
tions twice  as  large  as  those  of  the  ostrich.  In  yet 
another  species,  the  whole  length  of  the  track,  inclu- 
ding the  large  heel,  was  two  feet,  and  the  step  six  feet. 
Since  the  first  discovery  of  these  footprints,  Pro- 
fessor Hitchcock  says  he  has  become  acquainted  with 
not  less  than  thirty  species  of  these  impressions,  occur- 
ring at  fifteen  quarries,  within  a  compass  of  thirty  miles, 
along  the  Connecticut  River,  between  the  north  line 
of  Massachusetts,  and  Middletown  in  Connecticut.  The 
impressions  are  represented  as  being  often  very  per- 
fect, so  much  so,  that  in  one  specimen  is  shown  the 
pitted,  ridged,  and  furrowed  skin  of  the  bottom  of  the 
foot.  The  evidence  appears  to  be  strong,  that  a  large 
proportion  of  the  fossil  tracks  must  have  been  made 
by  birds  of  the  gralla  family  ;  and  though  some  of  them 
are  said  greatly  to  resemble  the  tracks  of  saurians, 
it  is  concluded  that  none  of  them  were  made  by 
animals  having  more  than  two  feet.  The  class  which 
possess  the  greatest  resemblance  to  the  saurian  family 
Professor  Hitchcock  calls  sauroidichnites,  or  tracks 


186  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

resembling  those  of  saurians,  of  which  he  enumerates 
ten  species.  The  others  he  terms  ornitfioidichnites, 
instead  of  ornithichnites,  —  that  is,  tracks  resembling 
those  of  birds.  These  he  divides  into  two  classes,  ac- 
cording to  the  thickness  of  the  toes,  —  pachydactyli, 
of  which  there  are  enumerated  seven  species,  and  lep- 
todactyli,  comprising  twenty  other  species.  He  says 
that  the  pterodactyle  is  the  only  animal  of  those  yet 
discovered,  which  could  have  made  similar  tracks,  and 
thinks  it  not  improbable  that  some  of  the  thirty  species 
were  actually  made  by  that  animal.  But  the  toes  of 
the  pterodactyle  are,  as  he  remarks,  always  four  or  five  ; 
whereas  more  than  half  of  the  tracks  he  has  examined 
show  the  impression  of  only  three. 

In  the  year  1839,  at  the  meeting  of  the  British  As- 
sociation, Dr.  Ward  gave  an  account  of  some  fossil 
foot-marks,  being  trifid,  —  thus  resembling  those  in 
the  Connecticut  valley,  —  which  had  recently  been 
discovered  on  the  new  red  sandstone  near  Shrews- 
bury, in  England.  The  three  toes  appear,  also,  like 
the  former,  to  have  been  armed  with  long  nails.  Some 
singular  footprints  are  mentioned  by  Dr.  Cotta,  as  hav- 
ing been  discovered  in  the  red  sandstone  of  Saxony, 
some  twenty  or  thirty  miles  from  Leipsic.  They  have 
this  peculiarity,  that  they  are  two-toed,  or  rather, 
as  described,  resemble  a  horse-shoe,  except  that 
they  are  somewhat  angular.  No  regular  arrange- 
ment of  the  tracks  was  discovered  ;  but  Dr.  Cotta  gives 
it  as  his  opinion,  that  they  were  produced  by  two- 
footed  animals.  The  figures  were  found  only  in  relief, 
on  the  under  side  of  a  layer,  like  that  which  contains 
the  tracks  at  Hessburg. 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  187 

These  tracks  are  remarkable  as  showing  how  long 
the  impressions  thus  made  have  probably  remained. 
Dr.  Buckland's  reflections  on  this  subject  are  so  ap- 
propriate and  striking,  that  we  quote  them  at  length. 

"  The  historian  or  the  antiquary  may  have  traversed 
the  fields  of  ancient  or  modern  battles,  and  may  have- 
pursued  the  line  of  march  of  triumphant  conquerors, 
whose  armies  trampled  down  the  most  mighty  king- 
doms of  the  world.  The  winds  and  storms  have 
utterly  obliterated  the  ephemeral  impressions  of  their 
course.  Not  a  track  remains  of  a  single  foot  or  a  sin- 
gle hoof,  of  all  the  countless  millions  of  men  and 
beasts  whose  progress  spread  desolation  over  the 
earth.  But  the  reptiles  that  crawled  upon  the  half  fin- 
ished surface  of  an  infant  planet  have  left  memorials 
of  their  passage,  enduring  and  indelible.  No  history 
has  recorded  their  creation  or  destruction ;  their  very 
bones  are  found  no  more  among  the  fossil  relics  of  a 
former  world.  Centuries  and  thousands  of  years  may 
have  rolled  away,  between  the  time  in  which  these 
footsteps  were  impressed  by  tortoises  upon  the  sands 
of  their  native  Scotland,  and  the  hour  when  they  are 
again  laid  bare,  and  exposed  to  our  curious  and  ad- 
miring eyes.  Yet  we  behold  them  stamped  upon  the 
rock,  distinct  as  the  track  of  the  passing  animal  upon 
the  recent  snow ;  as  if  to  show  that  thousands  of 
years  are  but  as  nothing  amidst  eternity,  and  as  it 
were  in  mockery  of  the  fleeting,  perishable  career  of 
the  mightiest  potentates  among  mankind." 

IMPRESSIONS  OF  RAIN-DROPS.  —  The  same  red  sand- 
stone, in  which,  in  England,  the  footprints  are  found, 
also  contains  what  are  supposed  to  be  distinct  im- 


188  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

pressions  of  drops  of  rain.  In  one  quarry,  where 
the  singular  tracks  attributed  to  the  cheirotherium,  or 
labyrinthodon,  were  found,  the  under  surfaces  of  two 
strata,  even  at  the  depth  of  thirty-two  or  thirty-five 
feet  from  the  top  of  the  quarry,  present  a  singular  ap- 
pearance, being  covered  with  small  hemispheres  of  the 
same  substance  as  the  sandstone.  These  projections 
are  casts,  in  relief,  of  indentations  in  the  upper  surface 
of  a  thin  bed  of  clay,  probably  occasioned  by  drops  of 
rain.  The  form  of  these  indentations  varies.  Some- 
times it  is  hemispherical  ;  sometimes  irregular  and 
elongated,  as  if  the  drops  struck  the  surface  obliquely, 
through  the  force  of  wind  accompanying  the  rain. 
Similar  marks  have  also  been  discovered  in  this  coun- 
try ;  and  by  forming  clay  into  paste,  and  sprinkling  it 
with  water,  Professor  Hitchcock  says  that  he  has  pro- 
duced precisely  the  same  kind  of  indentations.  In 
connection  with  some  remarks  on  the  footprints  which 
have  been  discovered  in  the  red  sandstone,  he  strik- 
ingly observes :  "  Still  more  strange  is  it,  that  even  the 
pattering  of  a  shower  at  that  distant  period  should  have 
left  marks  equally  distinct,  and  registered  with  infalli- 
ble certainty  the  direction  of  the  wind." 

FOSSIL  FISH.  —  Besides  the  organic  remains  already 
mentioned,  several  species  of  fossil  fish  have  been  dis- 
covered. These  have  been  classified  by  Professor 
Agassiz  according  to  the  following  orders,  being  the 
same  that  he  has  proposed  for  fishes,  and  founded  on 
the  peculiar  structure  of  their  scales. 

Order  I.  The  Placoldians, —  from  a  Greek  word 
signifying  a  broad  plate.  The  skin  covered  irregu- 
larly with  enamelled  plates,  sometimes  of  a  large  size, 


ORGANIC     REMAINS.  y  189 

but  frequently  in  the  form  of  small  points,  as  in  the 
shagreen  on  the  skin  of  sharks,  and  the  tubercles  on 
the  integuments  of  rays  ;  a  few  teeth,  and  possibly 
vertebras,  and  now  and  then  an  example  of  the  means 
of  defence  on  their  backs,  are  all  the  remains  of  this 
description  yet  discovered.  This  order  is  said  to  be 
represented  by  five  genera,  of  which  one,  comprising 
twelve  species,  is  extinct. 

Order  II.  The  Ganoidians,  —  from  a  Greek  word 
signifying  splendor,  on  account  of  the  brilliant  surface 
of  their  enamel.  These  are  characterized  by  angular 
scales,  formed  of  horny  or  bony  plates,  protected  by  a 
thick  layer  of  enamel.  This  order,  it  is  stated,  com- 
prehends three  extinct  genera,  with  three  species. 

Order  III.  The  Ctenoidians,  —  from  a  Greek  word 
which  signifies  a  comb.  The  scales  of  this  order  have 
their  posterior  margin  pectinated,  or  like  the  teeth  of 
a  comb,  and  are  composed  of  thin  plates  of  bone  or 
horn,  but  have  no  enamel. 

Order  IV.  The  Cycloidians,  —  from  a  Greek  word 
which  signifies  a  circle.  The  scales  are  smooth,  with 
a  simple  margin,  composed  of  thin  plates  of  bone  or 
horn  without  enamel.  The  teeth  of  some  of  the  fossil 
fish  of  this  order  so  greatly  resemble  reptiles,  that  it 
was  supposed  the  original  belonged  to  the  extinct  tribe 
of  the  saurians. 

Fossil  fish  are  termed  ichthyolites.  In  the  chalk  for- 
mation, many  teeth  of  fish  allied  to  the  shark  family 
are  found ,  and  some  of  these  are  of  so  enormous  a  size 
that  the  fish  must  have  been  from  seventy  to  one  hun- 
dred feet  long,  and  consequently  as  great  a  monster 
for  the  deep  as  was  the  iguanodon  on  the  land.  In 


190  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

some  instances,  the  mouth  appears  to  have  been  cov- 
ered with  peculiar  bony  processes,  like  a  tessellated 
pavement.  The  jaw-bone  also  of  a  very  curious  fish, 
called  the  chimcera,  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Mantell,  in  a 
marl-pit,  and  other  specimens  in  chalk  and  green  sand. 
Remains  likewise  of  the  sauroid,  or  lizard-like  fish, 
have  been  found,  which  show  that  these  fishes  must 
have  attained  a  great  magnitude.  The  specimens  are 
sometimes  quite  perfect.  The  fossil  fishes  of  the  older 
formations  differ  greatly  in  their  organization  from  the 
existing  species,  and  even  from  those  found  in  more 
recent  formations.  This  difference  consists  mainly  in 
the  prolongation  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  upper  branch  of 
the  tail,  which  is  always  more  or  less  forked.  As  we 
ascend  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  strata,  and  in  the 
upper  secondary  and  tertiary  rocks,  it  is  entirely  want- 
ing. One  of  the  most  singular  fishes  is  the  macro- 
poma.  The  operculum  of  the  gills  is  very  large,  and 
the  scales  are  studded  with  hollow  tubes.  In  many 
recent  fishes,  it  is  said,  there  is  a  row  of  tubular 
scales,  forming  what  is  called  a  lateral  line,  through 
which  flows  a  fluid  that  lubricates  the  surface  of  the 
body;  in  the  macropoma,  every  scale  appears  to  have 
possessed  such  a  mechanism. 

Coprolilcs,  or  the  fecal  remains  of  fishes  and  other 
animals,  are  also  found,  and  much  aid  is  afforded  by 
them  in  determining  the  food,  habits,  &c.,  of  the  spe- 
cies to  which  they  belong.  Thus,  a  coprolite  of  the 
ichthyosaurus  was  shown  to  Professor  Agassiz,  that 
contained  the  small  scale  of  a  fish,  which  he  imme- 
diately recognized  as  having  belonged  originally  to  a 
particular  spot  on  the  body  of  an  extinct  species  of 


ORGANIC     REMAINS. 


191 


fish  ;  and  ihus  he  was  enabled  to  determine  the  food 
of  the  ichthyosaurus. 

LOLIGO,  OR  CUTTLE-FISH.  —  The  common  cuttle-fish 
is  an  animal  which  has  no  external  shell,  but  is  fur- 
nished with  a  sort  of  bladder  or  sack,  containing  a 
black  and  inky  fluid,  by  ejecting  which,  and  thus  dark- 
ening the  water,  it  is  enabled  to  make  its  escape  from 
its  enemies.  Strange  as  it  may  appear,  among  me 
petrified  remains  of  animals  of  a  former  world  are 
found  numerous  specimens  of  the  cuttle-fish,  in  which 
the  ink-bags  are  preserved  in  a  fossil  state.  A  portion 
of  the  ink,  thus  fossilized,  was  submitted  by  Dr.  Buck- 
land  to  Sir  Francis  Chantrey,  who  tried  it  as  a  pigment, 
and  when  used  by  him  in  drawing,  it  was  adjudged 
by  a  celebrated  painter  to  be  most  excellent  sepia. 
The  preservation  of  the  ink-bags  shows  that  the  ani- 
mals must  have  died  suddenly,  and  been  buried  at  once 
in  the  sediment  that  formed  the  strata  where  they  were 
discovered. 


SHELL-FISH.  —  But  the  variety  of  shells   found  in 
the  older  formations,  and  even  up  through  the   more 


192  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

recent  ones,  is  still  greater  than  of  fishes.  We  can 
mention  only  a  few  of  the  most  remarkable.  Notice 
has  already  been  taken  of  the  corals  which  abound  in 
various  parts  of  the  globe.  Both  marine  and  fresh- 
water shells  are  discovered  among  other  organic  re- 
mains, some  of  which  belong  to  extinct,  and  others  to 
existing  species.  It  may  be  here  remarked,  that  many 
of  ^he  rocks  of  the  globe,  and  constituting  a  large  por- 
tion of  its  crust,  are  composed  wholly  or  in  part  of 
shells. 


THE  NAUTILUS.  —  This  genus,  of  which  there  are 
many  species,  some  living  and  some  extinct,  belongs 
to  the  class  of  many-chambered  shells.  They  are  so 
called  because  they  are  divided  by  cross  partitions  into 
numerous  compartments,  which  are  pierced  through 
the  middle  by  what  is  termed  a  siphunculus  or  tube, 
which  extends  to  the  remotest  cell.  The  animal  it- 
self occupies  the  outer  receptacle,  and  is  connected 
with  the  inner  chambers  by  means  of  a  membranous 
tube  which  lines  the  siphunculus.  The  chambers  are 
internal  air-cells,  and  the  animal  can  fill  the  siphun- 


ORGANIC     BKMAINS.  193 

cle  with  a  fluid  which  is  secreted  in  a  sack  around  its 
heart ;  or  exhaust  it,  when  necessary.  When  the  sack 
we  have  mentioned  is  filled,  the  siphuncle  is  empty,  and 
the  air  in  the  inner  chambers  expands,  which  enables 
the  shell  to  rise  and  float.  When  the  animal  draws  its 
arm  into  the  shell,  the  fluid  in  the  sack  is  compressed 
and  forced  into  the  siphuncle  ;  the  air  is  thus  con- 
densed, and  the  shell  sinks. 

The  fossil  ammonite^  or  coma  ammonis,  is  a  many- 
chambered  shell,  coiled  up  in  a  similar  manner  to  the 
nautilus  ;  but  the  siphunculus,  instead  of  being  central, 
is  placed  at  the  back.  The  partitions,  too,  instead  of 
being  simple  curves,  possess  every  variety  of  turn,  and 
the  shell  has  generally  flutings,  ribs,  or  tubercles.  The 
external  surface  has  marks  which  resemble  a  fringe. 
The  ammonite  seems,  however,  to  have  been  enabled 
to  raise  and  depress  itself  in  the  water  by  a  similar 
mechanism  to  that  already  mentioned  as  appertaining 
to  the  nautilus. 

The  whole  genus  of  ammonites  is  now  extinct,  and 
Mr.  Richardson  has  celebrated  this  geological  fact  in 
the  following  fanciful  lines. 

"  The  nautilus  and  ammonite 

Were  launched  in  friendly  strife  ; 
Each  sent  to  float  in  its  tiny  boat 
On  the  wide,  wild  sea  of  life. 

"  For  each  could  swim  on  the  ocean's  brim, 

And  when  wearied,  its  sail  could  furl ; 
And  sink  to  sleep  in  the  great  sea-deep, 
In  its  palace,  all  of  pearl. 

"  And  theirs  was  a  bliss  more  fair  than  this, 
Which  we  taste  in  our  colder  clime; 
13 


194  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

For  they  were  rife  in  a  tropic  life, — 
A  brighter  and  better  clime  ! 

"  They  swam  'mid  isles,  whose  summer  smiles 

Were  dimmed  by  no  alloy  ; 
Whose  groves  were  palm,  whose  air  was  balm, 
And  life  one  only  joy  ! 

"  They  sailed  all  day  through  creek  and  bay, 

And  traversed  the  ocean  deep  ; 
And  at  night  they  sank  on  a  coral  bank, 
In  its  fairy  bowers  to  sleep. 

"  And  the  monsters  vast  of  ages  past 

They  beheld  in  their  ocean-caves ; 
They  saw  them  ride  in  their  power  and  pride, 
And  sink  in  their  deep  sea-graves. 

"  And  hand  in  hand,  from  strand  to  strand, 

They  sailed  in  mirth  and  glee ; 
These  fairy  shells,  with  their  crystal  cells, 
Twin  sisters  of  the  sea. 

"  And  they  came  at  last  to  a  sea  long  past ; 

But  as  they  reached  its  shore, 
The  Almighty's  breath  spoke  out  in  death, 
And  the  ammonite  lived  no  more  ! 

"  So  the  nautilus  now  in  its  shelly  prow, 

As  over  the  deep  it  strays, 
Still  seems  to  seek,  in  bay  and  creek, 
Its  companion  of  other  days. 

"  And  alike  do  we,  on  life's  stormy  sea, 

As  we  roam  from  shore  to  shore, 
Thus  tempest-tossed,  seek  the  loved,  the  lost, 
But  find  them  on  earth  no  more  ! 

"  Yet  the  hope  how  sweet,  again  to  meet, 

As  we  look  to  a  distant  strand, 
Where  heart  meets  heart,  and  no  more  they  part, 
Who  meet  in  that  better  land !  " 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  195 

Another  fossil,  called  the  behmnite,  is  a  long,  conical 
stone,  of  a  crystalline,  radiated  structure,  and  generally 
of  a  brown  color.  It  appears  to  be  the  bone  of  a 
creature  which  is  allied  to  the  cuttle-fish,  and  likewise 
provided  with  an  ink-bag  for  defence. 

Among  the  most  interesting  species  of  fossil  shells 
are  the  spirula  and  orthoceratite.  The  latter  was  a 
long,  straight  shell,  being  sometimes  found  a  yard  in 
length,  and  half  a  foot  in  diameter ;  the  interior  was 
divided  into  separate  chambers  by  partitions,  of  which 
not  less  than  seventy  have  been  counted. 

The  crinoidea  are  now  of  rare  occurrence  in  our 
seas,  and  only  one  or  two  species  are  known ;  but 
they  occupied  a  large  space  among  the  shells  of  the 
early  periods.  Those  that  have  been  discovered  have 
been  arranged  in  four  divisions,  comprising  nine  genera, 
most  of  them  containing  several  species.  The  skel- 
eton is  composed  of  numerous  little  bones,  and  the 
number  in  one  skeleton  has  been  computed  at  thirty 
thousand.  They  are  described  by  Mr.  Miller,  who  has 
written  a  history  of  them,  as  an  animal  with  a  round, 
oval,  or  angular  column,  composed  of  numerous  artic- 
ulations, and  supporting  at  its  summit  a  series  of  plates 
or  joints,  which  form  a  cup-like  body,  containing  the 
viscera,  from  the  upper  ritn  of  which  proceed  fine 
articulated  arms,  divided  into  tentacula,  or  fingers, 
more  or  less  numerous,  surrounding  the  aperture  of 
the  mouth,  which  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  a  plaited 
integument  extending  over  the  abdominal  cavity,  and 
capable  of  being  contracted  into  a  conical  or  proboscal 
shape.  This  column  is  supposed  to  have  been  covered 
with  a  leather-like  integument.  The  animal  resembles 


196  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

a  star-fish,  with  a  long,  flexible  column,  attached  at  its 
base  to  a  rock.  The  small  detached  bones  occur  in 
myriads  in  the  mountain  limestone,  and  other  sec- 
ondary rocks,  forming  successions  of  strata,  it  is  said, 
many  feet  in  thickness,  and  many  miles  in  extent, 
showing  how  largely  the  bodies  of  this  peculiar  tribe 
of  animals  must  have  contributed  to  increase  the  mass 
of  materials  composing  the  crust  of  the  earth. 

In  this  class  are  the  pentacrinites  and  encrinites. 
The  latter  name  is  given  to  a  species  in  which  the 
bones  of  the  column  are  circular  or  elliptical,  and 
that  of  pentacrinites  to  those  which  have  angular  or 
pentagonal  stems.  One  of  the  most  elegant  of  the 


Lily  Encrinite. 

encrinites  is  called  the  lily  encrinite.  There  are  also 
many  other  varieties,  some  of  which  are  called  pear 
encrinites  or  apiocrinites,  the  body  of  which  was  pear- 
shaped,  the  stem  short,  smooth,  and  strong,  the  arms 
simple. 

The  Derbyshire  marble,  which  is  so  extensively 
used  for  sideboards,  tables,  and  ornaments,  contains 
vast  quantities  of  encrinital  remains,  lying  in  relief  in 


ORGANIC     REMAINS.  197 


Pear  Encrinites. 


the  blocks  ;  casts  of  the  interior  of  the  columns  are 
likewise  found  in  the  chert,  which  occurs  in  that  stra- 
tum,—  the  original  calcareous  matter  having  been  re- 
moved ;  and  the  sharp  impressions  of  the  encrinital 
stems  form  solid  silicious  cylinders,  deeply  marked 
with  annular  risings  and  depressions,  which  are  called 
screw  or  pulley  stones. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  pentacrinites  is 
called  the  briarean  pentacrinite,  so  called  on  account 
of  the  number  of  its  hands  or  tentacles.  The  bones 
in  the  tentacles  are  said  to  amount  to  at  least  one 
hundred  thousand,  and  those  of  the  side-arms  to  at 
least  fifty  thousand  more  ;  and  allowing,  as  we  must 
do,  two  muscles  for  each  of  these,  the  muscles  in  the 
animal  must  have  amounted  to  not  less  than  three 
hundred  thousand,  while  the  bones  in  a  man  are  only 
two  hundred  and  forty-one,  and  the  pairs  of  muscles 
but  two  hundred  and  thirty-two. 

The  numerous  side-arms,  says  Dr.  Buckland,  when 
expanded,  would  act  as  auxiliary  nets  to  retain  the 
prey  of  the  animal,  and  also  serve  as  holdfasts  to  as- 
sist it  in  adhering  to  the  bottom,  or  to  extraneous 
bodies.  In  agitated  water,  they  would  close  and  fold 


198  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

themselves  along  the  column,  in  a  position  which 
would  expose  the  least  possible  surface  to  the  element, 
and,  together  with  the  column  and  arms,  would  yield 
to  the  direction  of  the  current. 

POLYPARIA,  OR  FOSSIL  POLYPI.  —  We  have  already 
alluded  to  these  animals  while  speaking  of  coral ;  but 
there  are  some  particulars  which  deserve  further  men- 
tion in  connection  with  the  fossil  zoophytes.  The  ten- 
tacula  of  these  animals  are  furnished  with  small,  deli- 
cate hairs,  called  cilia.  These  can  be  moved  with  a 
rapid  motion,  so  as  to  set  and  keep  the  water  in  cur- 
rents, and  thus  bring  food  to  their  mouths.  Some 
specimens  have  immense  numbers  of  these  tentacula 
and  cilia.  Thus,  one  kind  of  the  flustra  has  usually 
twenty-two  tentacula  and  twenty-two  hundred  cilia. 
An  ordinary  specimen,  therefore,  of  this  species,  will 
contain  eighteen  thousand  polypi,  and  have  three  hun- 
dred and  ninety-six  thousand  tentacula,  and  thirty-nine 
millions  of  cilia.  One  other  species  Dr.  Grant  esti- 
mates to  contain  four  hundred  million  cilia. 

These  animals  multiply  as  if  by  buds.  These  are 
called  gemmules,  which,  after  sprouting  out  like  a  bud, 
fall  off  from  the  parent  polype,  and  thus  become  distinct 
and  perfect  animals.  By  dividing  them,  also,  each 
part  will  become  a  perfect  polype.  In  a  single  month, 
one  polype  may  thus  produce  a  million  of  its  young. 

TRILOBITES.  —  The  trilobite  is  an  animal  whose  re- 
mains are  found  in  formations  of  a  very  early  date. 
It  belongs  to  the  Crustacea,  and  appears  to  have  been 
very  numerous,  as  not  less  than  twelve  genera  and 
sixty  species  have  been  established.  In  its  form  it  is 
divided  into  three  parts  or  lobes,  and  exhibits  consider- 


ORGANIC     REMAINS.  199 

able  variety.  Some  of  the  species  could  coil  them- 
selves up  like  a  ball ;  others  had  only  the  central  por- 
tion movable,  while  others  still  possessed  a  tail.  They 
had  no  antennae,  and  their  feet  or  paddles,  if  they  had 
any,  must  have  been  soft  and  perishable,  as  no  remains 
of  them  have  yet  been  discovered.  The  fore  part  of 
the  body  was  covered  with  a  kind  of  shield,  while  the 
abdomen  had  many  segments,  which  folded  over  each 
other  like  the  tail  of  a  lobster.  They  vary  in  size 
from  one  to  six  inches  long ;  the  largest  yet  described 
is  said  to  be  twenty-one  inches  long.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  circumstances  respecting  them  is,  that  they 
are  found  all  over  the  globe,  in  Northern  Europe  and 
North  America,  in  South  America  and  Africa.  They 
never  occur  in  any  strata  more  recent  than  the  car- 
boniferous. 

As  respects  the  habits  of  these  animals,  it  is  sup- 
posed, from  their  being  closely  allied  to  the  recent 
bopyrus,  and  their  feet  being  almost  null,  if  not  entirely 
so,  that  they  were,  to  a  certain  extent,  sedentary  ;  the 
flat  under  surface  of  their  bodies,  and  the  side  leather- 
like  margin  of  several  species,  renders  it  probable  that 
they  adhered,  with  a  soft  articulated  under  side,  to  rocks 
or  fuci.  Some  of  the  species  seem  to  have  been  with- 
out eyes,  and  all  without  antenna?,  or  distinct  feet ;  if 
they  had  feet,  they  must  have  been  so  small  as  to  have 
been  almost  useless  as  organs  of  locomotion.  That 
they  were  carnivorous  is  probable  from  the  structure 
of  the  mouth ;  and  the  highly  organized  eyes  of  some 
of  the  genera  prove  that  they  had  to  search  for  food, 
and  consequently  had  some  power  of  locomotion.  But 
their  most  remarkable  feature  was  the  eye,  which  was 


200  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

immovable  and  fixed  ;  this  apparent  deficiency  being 
compensated  by  an  arrangement  similar  to  that  by 
which  the  fixed  eyes  of  certain  kinds  of  flies  are  fur- 
nished with  a  multitude  of  lenses.  The  eye  is  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  elongated  cones,  each  having  a 
crystalline  lens,  pupil,  and  cornea,  and  terminating  in 
the  extremity  of  the  optic  nerves.  Each  organ  of 
sight,  therefore,  is  a  compound  instrument,  made  up 
of  a  series  of  optical  tubes  or  telescopes. 

That  any  traces  should  remain  of  the  visual  organs 
of  an  animal  which  must  have  perished  at  so  remote  a 
period  seems  at  first  incredible ;  but  there  are  no  lim- 
its to  the  wonders  which  geology  unfolds  to  us.  The 
trilobite,  like  the  limulus,  was  furnished  with  two 
compound  eyes,  each  being  the  frustum  of  a  cone, 
but  incomplete  on  that  side  which  is  opposite  to  the 
other  eye.  In  one  species,  four  hundred  spherical 
lenses  have  been  detected  in  each  eye  ;  but,  in  general, 
the  lenses  have  fallen  out,  as  often  happens  after  death 
in  the  eye  of  the  common  lobster.  The  eye  was  not 
adapted  to  look  downward  ;  nor  was  it  necessary,  as 
the  creature  was  evidently  destined  to  live  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  water ;  but  for  horizontal  vision  the  struc- 
ture was  -complete.  The  exterior  of  each  eye  ranges 
round  nearly  three  fourths  of  a  circle,  each  command- 
ing such  a  field  of  vision,  that,  where  one  eye  ceases, 
the  other  begins  to  see  ;  so  that,  taking  both  eyes  to- 
gether, it  had,  as  it  were,  a  panoramic  vision.  The 
fact,  that  trilobites  existed  during  the  transition  forma- 
tion, shows  that  the  waters  could  not  have  consisted  of 
such  a  turbid,  chaotic  fluid  as  some  geologists  have 
supposed ;  but  must  have  been  so  transparent,  as,  at 


ORGANIC     REMAINS. 


201 


least,  to  allow  the  passage  of  light  to  the  visual  or- 
gans. 

FOSSIL  PLANTS.  —  We  have  not  room  to  dwell  upon 
the  particular  species  of  plants  which  are  found  im- 
bedded in  the  rocks  of  the  various  formations.  Some 
of  the  most  common  are  the  giant  ferns,  equiseta,  and 
club-tnasscs,  which  are  found  in  the  coal  formations. 
The  cut  below  shows  what  may  have  been  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  flora  of  the  carboniferous  period. 


Plants  of  the  Carboniferous  Period. 

Some  of  the  sigillaria  or  tree-ferns  which  have 
been  found  are  ten  feet  in  length,  and  specimens  are 
said  to  have  been  discovered  which  indicate  a  length 
of  sixty  feet,  the  circumference  having  been  not  less 
than  three  feet.  They  were  evidently  hollow,  like  the 
reed,  and  with  but  little  substance,  as  they  are  found 
compressed  into  a  flat  form.  Nearly  fifty  species  are 


202  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

enumerated.  The  flutings  and  scars  are  still  visible 
upon  the  numerous  fossil  specimens. 

Another  fossil  plant  of  the  coal  formation  is  the 
stlgmaria,  which  consists  of  a  dome-shaped  centre, 
three  or  four  feet  in  diameter,  from  which  proceeded 
branches  twenty  or  thirty  feet  long,  covered  with  tu- 
bercles, to  which  were  attached  cylindrical  succulent 
leaves.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  an  aquatic  plant, 
which  floated  in  the  water,  or  trailed  in  the  swamps. 
Other  plants  of  this  formation  had  whorled  leaves, 
like  the  flower  of  the  aster. 

The  most  elegant  and  abundant,  however,  of  the 
fossil  plants  of  the  coral  formation  are  the  lepidoden- 
dra,  so  called  on  account  of  the  scaly  appearance  of 
the  stems,  caused  by  the  separation  of  the  leaf-stalks. 
The  scars  are  simple,  lanceolate,  rhomboidal,  and  ar- 
ranged spirally  round  the  stem  ;  the  latter  is  slight  and 
tapering,  and  sometimes  arborescent.  The  cones,  which 
are  so  frequent  in  ironstone  nodules,  are  the  fruit  of 
of  those  plants. 

The  recent  species  of  the  lepidodendron  are  small 
creepers  clothed  with  delicate  foliage,  while  the  fos- 
sil plants  probably  attained  a  height  of  not  less  than 
eighty  feet ;  the  base  of  their  trunks  being  more  than 
three  feet  in  diameter,  and  their  leaves  in  some  cases 
nearly  two  feet  in  length.  They  were  equal  in  size 
to  the  large  pines,  and  formed  extensive  forests,  beneath 
the  shade  of  which  the  smaller  ferns,  whose  remains 
are  so  abundant,  flourished.  Other  plants  were  of  the 
same  gigantic  size ;  the  equisetum,  which  is  not  now 
found  above  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  then  flourished, 
with  stems  fourteen  inches  in  diameter.  The  whole 


ORGANIC    KEMAINS.  203 

number  of  coal  plants,  determined,  amounts  to  more 
than  three  hundred. 

Fossil  trees  are  also  found  in  some  of  the  forma- 
tions. A  remarkable  example  of  a  petrified  forest  in 
the  Isle  of  Portland  is  thus  described  by  Mantell. 
"  Upon  the  upper  layer  of  marine  limestone,  which 
abounds  in  ammonites,  tregonia?,  and  other  character- 
istic shells  of  the  oolite,  is  a  fresh-water  limestone, 
covered  by  a  layer  of  bituminous  earth,  or  vegetable 
mould,  which  is  of  a  dark  brown  color,  contains  a 
large  proportion  of  earthy  lignite,  and,  like  the  modern 
soil  on  the  surface  of  the  island,  many  water-worn  stones. 
This  layer  is  termed  the  dirt-bed  by  the  workmen ; 
and  in  and  upon  it  are  trunks  and  branches  of  co- 
niferous trees  and  plants,  allied  to  the  recent  cycas 
and  zamia.  Many  of  the  trees,  as  well  as  the  plants, 
are  still  erect,  as  if  petrified  while  growing  undisturbed 
in  their  native  forests,  having  their  roots  in  the  soil, 
and  their  trunks  extending  into  the  upper  limestone. 

"  As  the  Portland  stone  lies  beneath  these  strata,  which 
are  not  much  used  for  economical  purposes,  the  fossil 
trees  are  removed  and  thrown  by  as  rubbish.  On  my 
visit  to  the  island,  in  the  summer  of  1832,  the  surface 
of  a  large  area  of  the  dirt-bed  was  cleared,  preparatory 
to  its  removal,  and  a  most  striking  phenomenon  was 
presented  to  my  view.  The  floor  of  the  quarry  was 
literally  strewed  with  fossil  wood,  and  I  saw  before 
me  a  petrified  tropical  forest;  the  trees  and  plants, 
like  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  in  Arabian  story,  being 
converted  into  stone,  yet  still  maintaining  the  places 
which  they  occupied  when  alive  !  Some  of  the  trunks 
were  surrounded  by  a  conical  mould  of  calcareous 


204  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

matter,  which  had  evidently  once  been  earth,  and  had 
accumulated  around  the  bases  and  roots  of  the  trees. 
The  stems  were  generally  three  or  four  feet  high, 
being  jagged  or  splintered,  as  if  they  had  been  torn 
or  wrenched  by  a  hurricane,  —  an  appearance  which 
many  trees  in  this  neighbourhood,  after  the  late  storm, 
strikingly  resembled.  Some  of  the  trunks  were  two 
feet  in  diameter,  and  the  united  fragments  of  one 
tree  measured  upwards  of  thirty  feet  in  length  ;  in 
other  specimens,  branches  were  attached  to  the  stem. 

"  In  the  dirt-bed,  there  were  many  trunks  lying  pros- 
trate, and  fragments  of  branches.  Fossil  plants  oc- 
curred in  the  intervals  between  the  trees ;  and  the  dirt- 
bed  was  so  little  consolidated,  that  I  dug  up  with  a 
spade,  as  from  a  parterre,  several  specimens  that  were 
standing  on  the  very  spot  in  which  they  grew,  having, 
like  the  ^columns  of  Puzzuoli,  preserved  their  erect 
position  amidst  all  the  revolutions  which  have  subse- 
quently taken  place,  and  beneath  the  accumulated 
spoils  of  numberless  ages.  The  trees  and  plants  are 
completely  petrified  by  silex,  or  flint ;  and  sparks  are 
emitted,  upon  striking  a  piece  of  steel  with  a  fragment 
of  what  was  once  a  delicate  plant." 

Many  other  instances  of  buried  forests  are  known. 
Mr.  Parker  mentions  one  near  the  cascades  of  the 
Columbia  River,  of  twenty  miles  in  extent;  the  trees 
standing  in  water  twenty  or  thirty  feet  deep,  with  their 
tops  just  above  its  surface.  This  curious  phenomenon 
is  evidently  the  result  of  a  sinking  of  the  land,  doubt- 
less from  volcanic  action. 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  205 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES  ON   ORGANIC  REMAINS. 

COMPARISON  OF  FOSSIL  AND  LIVING  SPECIES.  —  It  is 
estimated  that  at  least  five  thousand  species  of  ani- 
mals and  plants  have  been  identified,  below  the  tertia- 
ry strata,  and  nearly  all  these  are  now  extinct.  Kofer- 
stein  gives  the  following  estimate  of  the  whole  number 
of  fossil  species. 

Mammalia      ....,..,      .         .         .         .     270 

Birds        '.  .,,;. 20 

Reptiles 104 

Fishes 386 

Insects 247 

Spiders,  Crustacea,  Xyphosura,  Entomostracea, 
Isopoda,  Myriopoda        .         .         .         .211 

Mollusca 6056 

Annelides 214 

Radiata 411 

Polypina 907 

Vegetables 803 

Total      .      9629 

The  number  of  species  of  fossil  shells  is  estimated 
at  three  thousand  and  thirty-six,  of  which  five  hundred 
and  sixty-eight  are  identical  with  existing  species. 

The  organic  remains  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
globe  correspond  more  nearly  to  species  now  found  in 
tropical  climates,  than  to  those  at  present  existing  in 
the  same  latitudes  ;  a  fact  sufficiently  indicating  that  the 
climate  of  the  earth  has  at  some  period  undergone  an 
entire  revolution,  and  that  the  polar  regions  have  in 


206  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

fact  once  been  subject  to  a  degree  of  heat  and  mois- 
ture even  greater  than  that  of  the  torrid  zone  at  the 
present  day ! 

PROGRESS  OF  IMPROVEMENT.  —  The  deeper  we  de- 
scend into  the  earth,  that  is,  the  older  the  rock, 
the  more  unlike  are  the  organic  remains  to  living 
species.  As  we  ascend,  the  nearer  is  the  approxima- 
tion to  those  which  exist.  From  these  facts  we  infer, 
that  in  the  earlier  periods  of  creation  the  forms  of  life 
were  unlike  the  present,  and  that  there  has  been  a 
succession  of  creations,  in  each  step  of  which  there 
has  been  an  advance  toward  the  existing  races.  In 
other  words,  it  is  evident  that  in  every  successive 
change  in  the  earth's  surface  there  has  been  an  im- 
provement of  its  condition ;  that  animals  and  plants 
of  higher  and  finer  organization  have  been  multiplied 
with  every  revolution,  until  at  last  the  earth  was  pre- 
pared for  the  existence  of  man,  the  head  of  creation. 
The  progress  of  improvement  is  still  going  on ;  new 
and  finer  fruits  are  produced  by  art ;  the  breeds  of  ani- 
mals are  improved  by  the  same  means  ;  and  doubtless 
the  superior  races  of  men  are  finally  to  displace  the 
inferior  ones,  until  at  last  the  physical,  intellectual,  and 
moral  stature  of  man,  throughout  the  globe,  shall  be 
elevated  to  its  highest  standard.  But  we  must  re- 
member the  vastness  of  the  scale  upon  which  these 
changes  operate,  and  the  almost  incalculable  duration 
of  years  through  which  they  must  extend.  Though 
the  world  has  existed  for  countless  millions  of  ages, 
still,  man  has  just  entered  on  the  threshold  of  his  ex- 
istence ;  and  if  we  would  look  to  the  period  of  his 
highest  improvement,  as  inferred  from  the  general 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  207 

course  of  Providence  upon  the  earth,  we  must  stretch 
our  view  forward  into  the  unseen  and  mysterious  dis- 
tance of  the  fathomless  future. 

ORDER  OF  CREATION  OF  ANIMALS  AND  PLANTS.  —  It 
may  be  stated,  in  general,  that  plants  and  animals  began 
first  to  exist  on  the  globe  during  the  period  when 
the  lowest  rocks,  in  which  their  remains  are  found, 
were  deposited  or  formed.  The  following  is  the  order, 
as  given  by  Professor  Hitchcock,  in  which  some  of 
the  most  important  plants  and  animals  appeared  on 
the  eax'th ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  epoch  of  their 
creation. 

SILURIAN  AND  CAMBRIAN,  OR  GRAUWACKE  PERIOD. 

Zoophytes. 

Marine  Shells. 

Crustacea :  Trilobites. 

Fishes.  Placoidians  and  Ganoidians  (Sauroids  and  Sharks) ; 
also  those  with  heterocercal  tails. 

Flowerless  Plants,  )  Marine. 

Flowering  Plants,  )  Terrestrial. 

CARBONIFEROUS  PERIOD. 
Fishes :  Cephalaspis,  &c. 
Aracknidans :  Scorpions. 
Coleopterous  Insects. 
Fresh-water  Shells. 

Dicotyledonous  Plants :  Coniferae  (Pines,  &c.),  Cycadeae. 
Monocotyledonous  Plants:  Palmae,Scitaminae. 

RED-SANDSTONE  PERIOD. 

Tracks  of  Birds,  Tortoises,  and  Cheirotheria,  or  gigantic 
Batrachians. 

Reptiles  :  Monitor,  Phytosaurus,  Ichthyosaurus,  Plesiosaurus, 
Mastodonsaurus,  (Labyrinthodon,)  Thecodontosaurus,  Palaeo- 
saurus. 

Crustacea  -•  Palinurus. 

Fishes:  Palaconiscus,  &c. 

Dicotyledonous  Plants :  Voltzia,  &c. 


208  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 


OOLITIC  PERIOD. 

Mammalia  (Marsupials)  :  Thylacotherium  and  Phascolothe- 
rium  (Didelphys  of  Buckland). 

Reptiles:  Saurocephalus,  Saurodon,  Teleosaurus,  Strepto- 
spondylus,  Megalosaurus,  Lacerta  Neptunia,  ^Elodon,  Rhache- 
osaurus,  Pleurosaurus,  Geosaurus,  Macrospondylus,  Pterodacty- 
lus,  Crocodile,  Gavial,  Tortoise. 

Fishes:  Pycnodontes  and  Lepidoides  (Dapedium,  &c.),  with 
homocercal  tails. 

Jlraclmidans  .-  Spiders. 

Insects :  Libellulae,  Coleoptera. 

Crustacea  :  Pagurus,  Eryon,  Scyllarus,  Paleemon,  Astacus. 

Plants :  Cycadeae  (Pterophyllum,  Zamia),  Coniferae  (Thuy- 
tes,  Taxites),  Lilia  (Bucklandia). 

WEALDEN  PERIOD. 

Birds  :  GrallsB  (Tilgate  Forest). 

Reptiles:  Iguanodon,  Leptorynchus,  Trionyx,  Emys,  Che- 
Ionia. 

Fishes  :  Lepidotus,  Pycnodus,  &c.,  Fresh-water  and  Estuary 
shells. 

CRETACEOUS  PERIOD. 

Insects.  f    *v 

Reptiles :  Mososaurus,  &c. 
Fishes  :  Ctenoidians  and  Cycloidians. 
Crustacea:  Arcania,  Etyaea,  Coryster. 
Plants :  Confervas,  Naiades. 

TERTIARY  PERIOD. 

Mammalia .- 1.  Eocene  Period :  Fifty  species .-  —  Palaaotherium, 
Anoplotherium,  Lophiodon,  Anthracotherium,  Cheroptamus 
(allied  to  the  hog),  Adapis  (resembling  the  hedgehog).  Carni- 
vora :  Bat,  Canis  (Wolf  and  Fox),  Coatis,  Raccoon,  Genette, 
Dormouse,  Squirrel.  Reptiles  :  Serpents. 

Birds  :  Buzzard,  Owl,  Quail,  Woodcock,  Sea-lark,  Curlew, 
Pelican,  Albatross,  Vulture. 

Reptiles :  Fresh-water  Tortoises. 

Fishes:  Seven  extinct  species  of  extinct  genera. 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  209 

2.  Miocene  Period :   Ape,  Dinotherium,  Tapir,  Chalicothe- 
rium,  Rhinoceros,  Tetracaulodon,   Hippotherium,   Sus,  Felis, 
Machairodus,   Gulo,   Agnotherium,  Mastodon,  Hippopotamus, 
Horse. 

3.  Pliocene  Period:  Elephant,  Ox,  Deer,  Dolphin,  Seal,  Wal- 
rus, Lamantin,  Megalonyx,  Megatherium,  Glyptodon,  Hyena, 
Ursus,  Weasel,  Hare,  Rabbit,  Water  Rat,  Mouse,    Dasyurus, 
Halmaturus,  Kangaroo,  and  Kangaroo  Rat. 

Birds  :  Pigeon,  Raven,  Lark,  Duck,  &c. 

Fishes  :  (In  the  formation  generally)  more  than  one  hundred 
species  now  extinct,  which  belong  to  more  than  forty  extinct, 
and  as  many  living  genera. 

Insects :  One  hundred  and  sixty-two  genera  of  Diptera,  He- 
miptera,  Coleoptera,  Aptera,  Hymenoptera,  Neuroptera,  and 
Orthoptera. 

Shells :  In  the  newer  pliocene  period,  ninety  to  ninety-five 
per  cent,  of  living  species ;  thirty-five  to  fifty  per  cent,  in  the 
older  pliocene  ;  seventeen  per  ce.nt.  in  the  miocene  ;  and  3.5  in 
the  eocene  ;  amounting  in  all,  extinct  and  recent,  to  four  thou- 
sand species. 

Plants :  Poplars,  Willows,  Elms,  Chestnuts,  Sycamores,  and 
nearly  two  hundred  other  species ;  seven  eighths  of  which  are 
monocotyledonous,  or  dicotyledonous. 

ALLUVIAL  PERIOD. 

Man,  and  most  of  the  other  species  of  existing  animals  and 
plants. 

From  this  view  it  appears,  that  in  every  age  of  the 
earth,  amid  all  the  diversities  of  organic  life,  the  same 
general  plan  has  been  followed  in  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdoms ;  for  at  every  epoch  we  find  the 
four  great  classes  of  animals,  namely,  the  mammifer- 
ous,  molluscous,  articulated,  and  radiated;  and  the 
same  divisions  of  plants,  the  vasculares  and  cellulares. 

RE.MAINS  OF  MAN.  —  The  remains  of  man  have  never 
been  found  in  any  deposit  older  than  the  alluvium, 
14 


210  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

except  in  a  few  cases,  where  they  appear  to  have  been 
mingled  with  drift  at  a  period  subsequent  to  its  de- 
position. Some  human  bones  are,  indeed,  found  im- 
bedded in  solid  limestone  rock,  on  the  shores  of  Guada- 
loupe;  but  this  formation  was  alluvial,  and,  as  the 
same  rock  contains  shells  of  existing  species,  as  well 
as  arrows,  hatchets  of  stone,  pottery,  &c.,  it  is  clear 
that  they  are  of  no  great  antiquity.  It  appears,  there- 
fore, that  man  was  created  at  a  comparatively  recent 
period,  ages  after  many  successive  races  had  lived  and 
perished  ;  and  furthermore,  that  he  came  into  existence 
about  the  same  time  as  the  principal  species  of  ani- 
mals and  plants  now  flourishing  on  the  earth. 

REVIEW  :  SUCCESSION  OF  CHANGES  IN  THE  ORGANIC 
KINGDOM.  —  If  we  take  a  retrospect  of  the  facts  we 
have  presented,  beginning  with  the  most  recent  forma- 
tions, we  shall  find,  says  Mantell,  that  traces  of  the  ex- 
isting orders  of  animated  nature  are  everywhere  appar- 
ent ;  and  works  of  art,  with  the  bones  of  man  and  the  re- 
mains of  vegetables  and  of  animals,  are  found  in  the 
modern  deposits.  In  the  succeeding  era,  many  species 
and  genera  both  of  plants  and  animals  were  absent. 
Large  terrestrial  pachydermata  greatly  predominated, 
and  the  vegetation  was  principally  of  a  character  refer- 
able to  temperate  and  intertropical  climes ;  while  the 
seas  abounded  in  fishes,  Crustacea,  and  mollusca,  as  at 
the  present  time. 

The  next  epoch  presented  one  wide  waste  of  waters, 
teeming  with  the  general  types  of  marine  beings,  but 
of  different  species  and  genera  from  those  of  the  pre- 
vious eras,  and  bearing  a  large  proportion  of  cephalo- 
podous  mollusca;  a  few  algse  and  fuci  made  up  the 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.          .  211 

marine  flora;  and  drifted  trunks  of  coniferas  and 
dicotyledonous  trees,  with  a  few  reptiles,  were  the 
only  indications  of  the  dry  land  and  its  inhabitants. 
The  delta  of  a  mighty  river  now  made  its  appearance, 
containing  the  spoils  of  an  extensive  island  or  continent ; 
and  the  remains  of  colossal  reptiles,  and  of  unknown 
forms  of  tropical  plants,  marked  the  era  of  the  country 
of  the  iguanodon. 

We  were  then  conducted  to  other  seas,  whose  waters 
abounded  in  fishes  and  mollusca,  and  were  inhabited 
by  marine  reptiles  wholly  unlike  any  that  now  exist ; 
while  the  dry  land  was  tenanted  by  enormous  terres- 
trial and  flying  reptiles,  marsupial  animals  and  insects, 
and  possessed  a  tropical  flora  of  a  peculiar  character. 
In  the  next  era  we  found  another  sea,  swarming  with 
fishes,  mollusca,  and  corals,  and  with  reptiles  similar 
to  those  of  the  preceding  period. 

The  succeeding  change  disclosed  extensive  re- 
gions covered  by  a  luxuriant  vegetation,  —  groves 
and  forests  of  palms,  arborescent  ferns  and  conifera?, 
and  gigantic  trees  related  to  the  existing  club-mosses 
and  equisetacese ;  the  numerical  preponderance  of  the 
flowerless  plants  constituting  a  character  wholly  un- 
known in  modern  floras.  The  ocean  abounded  in  mol- 
lusca, radiaria,  and  Crustacea,  of  genera  and  species 
unlike  any  that  had  previously  appeared. 

We  advanced  to  other  oceans  swarming  with  poly- 
paria,  mollusca,  radiaria,  and  fishes,  which  bore  some 
analogy  to  those  of  the  preceding  seas,  but  belonged 
to  different  species ;  interspersions  of  cryptogamous 
plants  with  a  flora  related  to  the  one  immediately 
antecedent  marked  the  existence  of  dry  land.  But 


212  ORGANIC     REMAINS. 

traces  of  animal  and  vegetable  existence  became  less 
and  less  manifest,  and  were  at  length  reduced  to  a  few 
shells,  corals,  and  sea-weeds ;  these  finally  disappeared, 
and  dubious  indications  of  infusoria  were  the  last  ves- 
tiges of  organic  life. 

Such  is  a  brief  reveiw  of  the  changes  upon  the 
surface  of  the  globe,  which  geology  unfolds.  Accor- 
ding to  the  records  found  in  the  strata  of  the  earth, — 
setting  aside  the  infusoria,  —  a  few  fuci,  mollusca, 
and  polyparia  are  the  first  evidence  of  organic  ex- 
istence; these  are  followed  by  a  larger  development 
of  the  same  orders,  and  the  addition  of  crinoidea,  crus- 
tacea,  and  fishes.  In  the  succeeding  period,  reptiles 
and  insects  appear,  with  sauroid  fishes,  and  an  im- 
mense development  of  vegetable  life,  particularly  of 
the  cryptogamic  class.  Large  reptiles  next  prevail,  to 
an  extraordinary  degree ;  and  one  genus  of  birds,  and 
two  genera  of  mammalia,  attest  the  existence  of  the 
higher  order  of  animals.  The  vegetable  kingdom  is 
greatly  modified ;  and  plants  related  to  the  zamiaB 
and  to  the  ciliaceaB  preponderate,  with  conifene  and 
dicotyledonous  trees.  The  next  remarkable  change  is 
in  the  sudden  increase  of  mammiferous  animals,  and 
the  reduction  of  the  reptile  tribes  ;  the  large  pachy- 
dermata,  as  the  mammoth,  elephant,  &c.,  first  appear. 
From  this  period,  till  the  creation  of  man,  there  are 
no  striking  general  modifications,  in  the  various  orders 
of  animal  and  vegetable  existence. 

The  physical  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the 
earth's  surface  are  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  modi- 
fications observable  in  animated  nature ;  for  the  laws 
of  mechanical  and  chemical  action  are  indissolubly  con- 


ORGANIC    REMAINS.  213 

nected  with  those  which  govern  vital  phenomena ;  and 
we  have  incontrovertible  evider.ce,  that,  throughout  the 
vast  periods  over  which  geological  speculations  extend, 
the  same  causes  have  operated,  the  same  effects  fol- 
lowed. Thus,  heat  and  cold,  drought  and  moisture,  and 
other  atmospheric  influences,  have  dissolved  the  loftiest 
peaks  ;  rivulets  and  torrents  have  eroded  the  sides  of  the 
mountain-chains ;  streams  and  rivers  have  worn  away 
the  plains,  and  carried  the  spoils  of  the  land  into  the 
bed  of  the  ocean  ;  the  waves  of  the  sea  have  wasted 
its  shores,  and  destroyed  the  cliffs  and  rocks  which  op- 
posed their  progress  ;  silt  has  been  changed  into  clay  ; 
calcareous  mud  into  limestone ;  sand  into  sandstone ; 
pebbles  into  conglomerates  and  breccia ;  and  animal 
and  vegetable  remains  have  been  imbedded,  and 
added  to  the  mineral  accumulations  of  the  past  ages 
of  our  planet. 

Beneath  the  surface,  the  action  of  electro-chemical 
forces  has  been  alike  unintermitting ;  vegetable  mat- 
ter has  been  converted  into  bitumen,  coal,  amber, 
and  the  diamond  ;  earth  into  crystals ;  limestone  into 
marble  ;  clay  into  slate  ;  and  sedimentary  into  crystal- ' 
line  masses.  The  volcano  has  poured  forth  its  rivers 
of  molten  rock ;  the  earthquake  rent  the  solid  crust  of 
the  globe  ;  beds  of  seas  have  been  elevated  into  moun- 
tains ;  subsidences  of  the  land  and  irruptions  of  the 
ocean  have  taken  place ;  and  the  destructive  and  con- 
servative influences  both  of  fire  and  water  have  been 
constantly  exerted  ;  the  phases  of  action  have  alone 
differed  in  duration  and  intensity. 

ROCKS  COMPOSED  OF  ORGANIC  REMAINS.  —  In  a  pre- 
vious  part  of  this  volume,  we  have  dwelt  upon  the  highly 


214  ORGANIC    REMAINS. 

interesting  subject  of  the  elaboration  of  solid  matter 
from  gaseous  and  fluid  elements  by  vital  action,  and 
the  formation  of  islands  and  continents  by  countless 
myriads  of  living  instruments.  Let  us  now  consider 
how  far  the  present  solid  materials  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face have  been  derived  from  organized  beings.  The 
processes  by  which  animal  and  vegetable  structures 
are  converted  into  stone,  and  the  various  states  in 
which  their  fossil  remains  occur,  have  already  been 
explained. 

The  strata  of  vegetable  origin  consist  of  peatj  of 
forests  ingulfed  by  subsidences  of  the  land,  or  imbed- 
ded in  the  mud  of  rivers  and  deltas,  or  in  the  basin  of 
the  sea ;  of  the  lignite  and  brown  call  of  the  tertiary 
deposits ;  of  the  coal  and  shales  of  the  carboniferous 
strata ;  and  of  the  silicified  and  calcareous  trunks  of 
trees,  in  tertiary  and  secondary  formations.  But  the 
deposits  which  are  derived,  either  wholly  or  in  part, 
from  animal  exuvise  are  so  numerous,  and  of  such 
prodigious  extent,  that  the  interrogation  of  the  poet 
may  be  repeated  by  the  philosopher : 

"  Where  is  the  dust  that  has  not  been  alive  ?  "  * 

Probably  there  is  not  an  atom  of  the  crust  of  the 
globe  which  has  not  passed  through  the  complex  and 
wonderful  laboratory  of  life.  Thus  we  find  that  all 
the  orders  of  animals,  from  the  infusoria  up  to  man, 
have  more  or  less  contributed,  by  their  organic  re- 
mains, to  swell  the  amount  of  the  solid  materials  of 
the  earth.  It  is  supposed  that  limestone  constitutes 
one  seventh  part  of  the  crust  of  the  globe,  and  this,  with 

•  Young. 


OEGANIC    REMAINS. 


the  immense  beds  of  chalk,  flint,  marl,  gypsum,  sand- 
stone, lias,  jasper,  are  all  of  animal  origin.  The  fol- 
lowing tabular  arrangement  presents  in  a  condensed 
form  some  of  the  most  striking  facts  on  this  subject. 


ROCKS  COMPOSED  WHOLLY  OR  IN  PART  OF  ANI- 
MAL REMAINS. 


Strata. 

Trilobite  schist 
Dudley  limestone 

Shelly  limestone 
Mountain  limestone 
Encrinital  marble 
Muscle-band 
Iron-stone  nodules 
Lias  shales  and  clay 

Limestone 

Lias  conglomerates 

Gryphite  limestone 

Shelly  limestone 

Stonesfield  slate 
Pappenheim  schist 

Bath-stone 
Ammonite  limestone 
Coral-rag 

Bradford  limestone 
Portland  oolite 


Prevailing  Remains.  Formations. 

Trilobites  ^    mm 

Corals,     crinoidea,    trilobites,    i 

and  shells 

Products,  spiriferae,  &c.  J 

Corals  and  shells  "| 

Lily-shaped  animals  and  shells 
Fresh-water  muscles  s  g> 

Trilobites,  insects,  and  shells  j    ~ 
Pentacrinites,     reptiles,      and  ^ 

fishes  1 

Terebratulae   and  other  shells    >   =T 
Fishes,  shells,  corals 
Shells,    principally    gryphites 

Terebratulae  and  other  shells 


IE 


Shells,  reptiles,  fishes,  insects  '-, 

Crustacea,  reptiles,  fishes,  in- 
sects 

Shells,  corals,  crinoidea,  rep- 
tiles, fishes 

Cephalopoda,  principally  am- 
monites 

Corals,  shells,  echini,  ammo- 
nites 

Crinoidea,  shells,  corals,  ce- 
phalopoda 

Ammonites,  trigonia3,  and  oth- 
er shells 


216 


ORGANIC    REMAINS. 


Strata. 
Purbeck  and  Sussex 

marble 
Wealden  limestone 


Tilgate  grit  (some  beds) 
Faringdon  gravel 

Jasper  and  chert 
Green  sand 
Chalk 

Maestricht  limestone 


Hippurite  limestone 
Hard  chalk  (some  beds) 


Flints 


Nummulite  rock 
Septaria 

Calcaire  grossier 
Gypseous  limestone 

Silicious  limestone 
Lacustrine  marl 

Monte  Bolca  limestone 
Bone-breccia 


Prevailing  Remains.  Formations. 

Fresh-water  shells,  Crustacea, 

reptiles,  fishes 
Cyclades,  and  other  fresh-  water 

shells,     Crustacea,    reptiles, 

fishes 
Reptiles,    fishes,    fresh-water 

shells 
Sponges,  corals,  echini,  and 

shells 
Shells 

Fibrous  zoophites 
Corals,  radiaria,  echini,  shells, 

fishes 
Corals,  shells,  ammonites,  be- 

lemnites,  and  other  cephalo- 

poda, —  reptiles 
Shells,   principally  hippurites 
Echini  and  belemnites 
Sponges    and    other     fibrous 

zoophites 
Infusoria  and  spines    of  zoo- 

phites 
Echini,   shells,  corals,  crinoi- 

dea 

Fresh-water  shells 
Nummulites 
Nautili,  turritellae,  and  other 

shells 

Shells  and  corals 
Mammalia  (palaeotheria,  &c.) 

birds,    reptiles,     and   fishes 
Shells 
Cyprides,    phryganaea,    fresh- 

water shells 
Fishes 
Mammalia  and  land  shells 


ORGANIC    REMAINS. 


217 


*g 


Prevailing  Remains.  Formations. 

Sub-Himalaya  sandstone   Elephant,  mastodon,  &c.,  rep- 

tiles 

Tripoli  Infusoria 

Semiopal  Infusoria 

Guadaloupe  limestone       Man,  land  shells,  and    corals 
Bermuda  limestone  Corals,  shells,  serpulae 

Bermuda  chalk  Comminuted     corals,     shells, 

&c. 
Bog-iron  ochre  Infusoria 

This  list  might  be  almost  indefinitely  extended,  for 
we  have  omitted  numerous  strata,  in  which  animal 
remains  largely  predominate  ;  and  in  the  tertiary  and 
modern  epochs,  every  order  of  animated  nature  is 
found  to  have  contributed  more  or  less  largely  to  the 
sedimentary  deposits,  —  the  bones  of  man,  &c.,  first  ap- 
pearing in  the  most  recent  accumulations  ;  and  by  the 
geological  causes  now  in  action,  not  only  the  remains 
of  the  existing  orders  of  living  beings,  but  also  works 
of  human  art,  are  added  day  by  day  to  the  solid  crust 
of  the  globe. 


GEOLOGICAL    MUTATIONS. 


WE  have  had  frequent  occasion  to  advert  to  the  fact, 
that  the  surface  of  the  globe  has  been  the  theatre  of 
successive  changes  and  revolutions ;  and  that,  through 
these  mutations,  it  has  finally  reached  its  present  con- 
dition. We  may,  indeed,  regard  our  globe  as  one  of 
the  works  of  the  Creator,  upon  which  he  has  exercised 
his  amazing  skill  and  power;  and,  through  the  revela- 
tions of  modern  geology,  we  are  permitted  to  look  in 
upon  his  laboratory,  and  see  the  processes  by  which  he 
has  produced  such  wonderful  results.  Let  us  now  take 
a  hasty  view  of  the  geological  changes  of  the  earth's 
surface,  which  will,  in  fact,  be  a  brief  survey  of  the 
natural  history  of  the  earth. 

In  the  early  pages  of  this  volume,  we  have  stated 
that  the  researches  of  modern  astronomers  have  fur- 
nished substantial  grounds  for  the  belief  that  our  globe 
was  once  a  nebulous  mass  diffused  in  space,  which, 
by  a  known  law  of  matter,  was  at  last  condensed  and 
became  a  solid  planetary  body,  revolving  around  the 
sun  as  the  centre  of  its  orbit.  It  is  supposed,  that,  at 
the  period  of  its  condensation,  it  was  a  molten  mass  ; 
but  the  surface  became  gradually  cooled,  probably 


GEOLOGICAL   MUTATIONS.  219 

leaving  the  interior  still  in  a  melted  state,  and  perhaps, 
also,  leaving  a  vast  hollow  space  in  the  centre. 

In  the  first  age  of  the  world  after  its  condensation, 
—  and  which,  of  course,  goes  back  for  myriads  of 
ages,  —  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  in  a  state  resem- 
bling that  of  the  moon  at  the  present  day,  presenting 
a  surface  torn  and  distorted  by  volcanic  action,  and 
doubtless  destitute  alike  of  vegetable  and  animal  life. 
The  bristling  pinnacles  of  lofty  mountains  rose  to  the 
clouds,  while  deep  and  ghastly  chasms  yawned  be- 
tween the  separate  elevations.  But  the  same  causes 
of  change  which  are  now  in  operation  —  the  wind 
and  the  rain,  heat  and  cold,  the  various  chemical 
forces,  the  earthquake  and  the  volcano  —  began  their 
work.  The  tops  of  the  mountains  were  slowly,  but 
surely,  worn  away,  and  the  particles  thus  separated 
were  carried  by  the  streams  to  the  valheys.  A  soil 
was  thus  formed,  suited  to  vegetable  life  ;  the  creative 
power  of  the  Almighty  was  now  put  forth,  and  plants, 
suited  to  the  state  of  things,  began  to  shoot  up  from  the 
ground.  When  a  supply  of  food  was  thus  provided, 
another  creative  act  took  place,  and  animals,  adapted 
to  the  habitation  provided  for  them,  were  seen  moving 
upon  the  land  and  amid  the  waters. 

At  a  period  even  anterior  to  this,  it  would  appear 
that  sea-weed  and  shell-fish  were  teeming  in  the  marine 
waters,  and  that  remains  of  them,  in  the  course  of  ages, 
were  deposited  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  and  became 
mingled  with  the  masses  of  the  land  deposited  there 
by  the  rains  and  streams  that  swept  down  from  the 
mountains.  The  bottom  of  the  sea  was,  in  process 
of  time,  lifted,  by  the  force  of  internal  fires,  and  thus 


220  GEOLOGICAL  MUTATIONS. 

became  dry  land,  rich  with  the  spoils  of  centuries,  and 
fitted  to  the  production  of  luxuriant  vegetation.  Again 
the  creative  energy  was  put  forth,  and  new  and  higher 
forms  of  organized  existence  appeared,  and  all  still 
suited  to  the  improved  condition  of  the  abodes  they 
were  designed  to  occupy. 

By  a  succession  of  changes,  operating  through  an 
inconceivable  length  of  years,  a  succession  of  races 
such  as  we  have  described  was  produced,  and  the 
various  rocks  which  now  form  the  crust  of  the  globe 
were  elaborated  from  the  great  workshop  of  the  Al- 
mighty, until,  at  last,  the  earth,  designed  as  the  abode 
of  man,  like  a  house  ready  furnished,  was  prepared. 
The  tenant  was  then  called  into  existence,  and  the 
work  of  creation  was  complete. 

We  have  already  adverted  to  the  supposed  discrep- 
ancy between  this  view,  presented  by  geology,  and 
that  of  the  Scriptures  as  generally  understood.  We 
leave  this  topic  for  the  present,  remarking,  that  the 
difference  is  only  apparent,  and  entirely  disappears 
upon  a  full  and  fair  examination  of  the  question.  We 
now  propose  to  give,  in  detail,  the  process  of  the 
changes  upon  the  earth's  surface,  effected  by  the  great 
agencies  of  nature. 


AQUEOUS   AGENCIES. 

GLACIERS,  ICEBERGS,  AND  LAND-SLIPS.  —  Glaciers 
are  masses  of  ice,  accumulated  in  valleys  or  on  the 
sides  of  mountains,  and  are  often  of  vast  extent  and 


AQUEOUS    AGENCIES.  221 

thickness.  They  are  found  at  various  elevations  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  from  three  thousand  to  twenty- 
eight  thousand  feet.  Those  of  the  Alps  are  sometimes 
three  hundred  square  miles  in  extent,  and  from  eighty 
to  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet  thick.  These  immense 
masses  are  sometimes  formed  over  precipices,  and, 
breaking  oft",  descend  into  the  valleys,  producing  im- 
mense havoc  in  their  path. 

Avalanches,  which  are  descending  masses  of  snow, 
have  been  known,  in  the  Alps,  to  destroy  several  villa- 
ges and  thousands  of  inhabitants  in  a  moment. 

Landslips  are  similar,  in  their  movement,  to  ava- 
lanches. They  occur  most  frequently  in  the  spring, 
when  the  earth  and  rocks,  moistened  by  dissolving 
snows,  are  set  free  by  the  frost,  and,  descending  to 
the  valleys,  bury  every  thing  beneath  the  mass  of  ruins. 
A  celebrated  occurrence  of  this  nature  took  place  in 
the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire  in  1826,  in 
which  a  deep  gorge  was  nearly  filled  up,  the  course 
of  a  river  turned,  and  a  family  destroyed. 

FROST  AND  RAINS.  —  Water  acts  upon  rocks  and 
soil,  both  mechanically  and  chemically ;  it  first  dis- 
solves some  of  the  substances  they  contain,  thus  ren- 
dering them  loose  and  porous,  and  then,  by  its  currents, 
wears  and  carries  away  the  particles.  Freezing  serves 
in  a  powerful  degree  to  separate  the  fragments  and 
grains,  and  thus  render  it  easy  for  the  water  and  the 
power  of  gravitation  to  bear  them  down  to  a  lower 
level.  This  may  seem  a  slow  process,  if  we  estimate 
by  human  measures  ;  but  in  geology  we  must  use  the 
scale  of  the  Eternal,  to  whom  "  a  thousand  years  are 
as  one  day,"  and  not  the  infinitesimal  gauge  of  ephem- 


222  GEOLOGICAL    MUTATIONS. 

eral  man.  It  is,  in  a  great  degree,  by  tne  action  of 
rain,  frost,  and  gravity,  that  the  great  valleys  of  the 
earth  are  filled  up,  and  the  soil  is  furnished  which  gives 
support  to  vegetable  and  animal  life. 

RIVERS.  —  These  produce  geological  changes  by 
carrying  away  some  portion  of  their  sides  and  bed, 
and  depositing  them  at  their  mouth,  or  at  particular 
places  along  their  course.  The  deposits,  at  their  points 
of  debouchure,  are  called  deltas.  The  force  of  this 
agent  of  change  may  be  estimated  by  the  fact,  that  the 
delta  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  has  advanced 
several  leagues  since  New  Orleans  was  built.  The 
delta  of  the  Ganges  is  two  hundred  and  twenty  miles 
in  extent.  In  two  thousand  years,  the  river  Po,  in 
Italy,  has  gained  eighteen  miles.  The  delta  of  the 
Niger  forms  an  area  of  tAventy-five  thousand  square 
miles.  Nearly  the  whole  extent  of  Lower  Egypt  con- 
sists of  the  delta  of  the  Nile.  The  quantity  of  sedi- 
ment annually  brought  down  by  the  Ganges  amounts 
to  six  billion  three  hundred  and  sixty-eight  million 
seventy-seven  thousand  four  hundred  and  forty  tons. 
The  quantity  of  matter  carried  by  the  River  Merri- 
mac  past  the  town  of  Lowell,  in  Massachusetts,  in 
1838,  was  estimated  at  one  billion  six  hundred  and 
seventy-eight  million  three  hundred  and  sixty-three 
thousand  .eight  hundred  and  ten  pounds.  The  depos- 
its thus  formed  are,  in  process  of  time,  converted  by 
consolidation  into  rocks,  such  as  the  shales,  sandstones, 
and  conglomerates  of  the  secondary  strata. 

Terraced  valleys,  such  as  may  be  seen  along  the 
borders  of  Connecticut  River,  are  formed  by  the  depos- 
its of  rivers  upon  their  banks.  When  a  burrirr  across 


AQUEOUS   AGENCIES.  223 

a  stream  has  been  broken  and  worn  away,  so  as  to 
drain  off  the  water  and  sink  the  channel  to  a  lower 
level,  the  sandy  banks  are  seen,  high  and  dry,  above 
the  surface  of  the  stream. 

BURSTING  OF  LAKES.  —  A  few  examples  of  this  phe- 
nomenon have  occurred,  in  which  a  large  bed  of  water 
has  broken  from  its  barriers,  and  inundated  the  coun- 
try along  the  path  of  the  retiring  flood.  A  case  of  this 
kind  occurred  in  Vermont,  a  few  years  since,  in  which 
two  considerable  lakes  were  drained  in  a  few  minutes, 
the  waters  urging  their  way  down  the  bed  of  Barton 
River,  for  twenty  miles,  to  Lake  Memphremagog. 
They  cut  a  channel  twenty  to  forty  rods  wide,  and 
fifty  to  sixty  feet  deep,  inundated  the  low  lands,  swept 
off  the  cattle,  horses,  and  inhabitants,  and  scattered 
along  the  margin  of  the  flood  immense  quantities  of 
timber  which  it  had  torn  from  the  forests  along  its  path. 
Other  instances  of  the  kind  are  on  record. 

AGENCY  OF  THE  OCEAN. — This  mighty  instrument 
of  geological  change  operates  by  the  action  of  its 
waves,  its  tides,  and  its  currents,  to  wear  away  the 
land,  and  to  accumulate  detritus,  or  particles  of  rocks 
and  earth,  so  as  to  form  new  land.  The  force  of  the 
sea  in  a  storm  is  tremendous ;  and  not  only  loose  soils 
and  sands,  but  the  solid  rock,  are  torn  away  by  the 
shock.  The  vast  heaps  of  rounded  pebbles  at  Lynn 
beach,  Nahant,  and  Nantucket,  sufficiently  attest  the 
giant  energy  of  the  waves.  The  rugged  rocks  along 
our  New  England  shores,  cut  into  a  thousand  fantastic 
forms,  and  which  have  received  the  various  names  of 
"  pulpits,"  "  castles,1'  "  bridges,"  &c.,  afford  another 
evidence  of  the  force  of  the  sea  in  producing  geolog- 
ical changes. 


224  GEOLOGICAL  MUTATIONS. 

The  currents  of  the  ocean,  produced  chiefly  by  set- 
tled winds,  are  numerous,  and  some  are  of  great  ve- 
locity and  extent.  One  of  these  —  the  Gulf  Stream, 
as  it  is  called  —  flows  out  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  turns 
Cape  Horn,  and  runs  along  the  coast  of  Africa ;  it 
then  traverses  the  Atlantic,  and  strikes  the  eastern 
coast  of  South  America  ;  turning  northward,  it  passes 
along  the  shore  of  the  United  States,  reaches  the 
Banks  of  Newfoundland,  and  at  last  goes  back  to  the 
coast  of  Africa,  to  supply  the  deficiency  of  water 
there.  Its  whole  length  is  several  thousand  miles,  and 
its  breadth  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  Its  velocity 
varies  from  one  to  four  miles  an  hour.  There  are 
other  currents  in  various  parts  of  the  ocean.  The 
power  of  these,  in  carrying  along  sand,  and  depositing 
it  in  new  situations,  is  immense. 

CALCAREOUS  TUFA  or  TRAVESTIN,  MARL,  SILICIOUS 
SINTER,  BOG  ORE,  PETROLEUM,  and  ASPHALTUM,  have 
already  been  noticed,  and  the  process  of  their  forma- 
tion has  been  described. 

SPRINGS.  —  Water  is  unequally  distributed  through 
the  different  strata  ;  some,  as  the  argillaceous  or  clayey, 
being  almost  impervious,  and  others,  as  the  arenaceous 
or  sandy,  allowing  it  to  percolate  freely  through  them. 
Hence,  when  the  former  lie  beneath  the  latter,  they 
form  basins  or  reservoirs.  In  digging  wells,  the  gen- 
eral object  is,  to  pass  through  the  sandy  strata,  till  the 
clay  stratum  is  reached,  when  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  water  is  insured. 

The  rocks  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth  often  op- 
erate as  conductors  of  water,  in  the  manner  of  a  sy- 
phon, and  the  Artesian  wells  are  constructed  on  this 


VEGETABLE   AGENCY.  '£ZO 

principle.  These  are  simple  borings,  of  considerable 
depth,  into  the  earth,  from  the  mouths  of  which  water 
flows,  as  from  a  spring.  In  England,  these  wells  have 
been  sunk  to  the  depth  of  six  hundred  and  twenty  feet, 
and  in  France,  near  Paris,  eighteen  hundred  feet.  In 
New  York,  Baltimore,  Albany,  and  in  different  parts 
of  New  Jersey,  borings  have  been  made  with  success. 

SALT  SPRINGS.  —  All  the  waters  of  the  earth  are 
found  to  contain  more  or  less  saline  matter,  and 
many  become  impregnated  with  other  substances. 
These  are  taken  up  by  solution  from  the  rocks  and 
earths  through  which  the  waters  pass,  and  thus  mineral 
springs  are  formed.  These  are  common  throughout 
the  world,  and  are  useful  for  many  purposes.  The 
salt  springs  in  the  vicinity  of  Syracuse,  New  York, 
yield  annually  three  million  bushels  of  salt.  In  Europe, 
salt  springs  rise  directly  from  the  beds  of  rock-salt ; 
but  in  this  country  no  such  beds  have  yet  been  found. 
They  are  supposed,  however,  to  exist  in  the  bowels  of 
the  earth,  and  to  supply  the  springs,  which  are  charged 
with  large  quantities  of  saline  matter. 

DKIFT,  &c.  —  The  agency  of  glaciers  and  icebergs 
in  carrying  away  and  dispersing  immense  masses  of 
earth  and  rock  has  been  already  considered ;  and  we 
refer  the  reader  to  that  portion  of  our  work  for  a  view 
of  this  topic. 


VEGETABLE  AGENCY. 

IN  our  account  of  peat  and  coal,  we  have  noticed 
some  of  the  most  remarkable  and  important  operations 
15 


226  GEOLOGICAL   MUTATIONS. 

performed  by  the  vegetable  creation  in  modifying  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  and  contributing  to  the  formation 
of  existing  strata.  To  this  we  may  add  the  accumu- 
lation of  drift  wood.  Large  rivers,  which  pass  through 
vast  forests,  carry  down  immense  quantities  of  timber. 
When  these  rivers  overflow  their  banks,  this  timber  is 
in  part  deposited  on  the  low  grounds.  But  much  of  it 
also  collects  on  the  eddies  along  the  shores,  or  is  car- 
ried into  the  ocean.  After  a  time  it  becomes  water- 
logged,—  that  is,  saturated  with  water,  —  and  sinks  to 
the  bottom.  Thus  a  deposit  of  entangled  trees  is  often 
formed  over  large  areas.  This  is  subsequently  cov- 
ered by  mud,  and  then  another  layer  of  wood  su- 
pervenes ;  so  that,  in  the  course  of  ages,  several  al- 
ternations of  wood  and  soil  are  accumulated.  The 
wood  becomes  slowly  changed  into  what  Dr.  Mac- 
culloch  terms  forest  peat ;  that  is,  peat  which  retains 
its  woody  fibres. 

The  Mississippi  furnishes  the  most  remarkable  ex- 
ample known  of  these  accumulations.  In  consequence 
of  some  obstruction  in  the  arm  of  the  river  called 
the  Atchafalaya,  supposed  to  have  been  formerly  the 
bed  of  the  Red  River,  a  raft  had  accumulated  in  thirty- 
five  years,  which,  in  1816,  was  'ten  miles  long,  two 
hundred  and  twenty  yards  wide,  and  eight  feet  thick  ! 
Although  floating,  it  is  covered  with  living  plants,  and, 
of  course,  with  soil.  Similar  rafts  occur  on  the  Red 
River,  and  one  on  the  Washita  concealed  the  surface 
for  seventeen  leagues.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, also,  numerous  alternations  of  drift  wood  and 
mud  exist,  extending  over  hundreds  of  square  leagues. 

Similar  deposits  of  wood  and  mud  are  found  in  the 


ANIMAL   AGENCY.  227 

River  Mackenzie,  which  empties  into  the  North  Sea, 
and  in  the  lakes  through  which  it  passes.  At  the 
mouth  of  the  river  —  which  is  almost  beyond  the  re- 
gion of  vegetation  —  are  extensive  deposits,  brought 
from  the  more  southern  districts  through  which  the 
river  passes. 

A  part  of  the  drift  wood  which  is  brought  down  the 
Mississippi,  and  other  rivers  along  the  coast  of  Ameri- 
ca, is  carried  northward  by  the  Gulf  Stream,  and 
thrown  upon  the  coast  of  Greenland.  The  same  thing 
happens  in  the  bays  of  Spitzbergen,  and  on  the  coasts 
of  Siberia. 


AGENCY  OF  MAN  AND  OTHER  ANIMALS. 

WE  have  already  noticed  the  geological  agency  of 
various  kinds  of  animals ;  as  the  infusoria,  in  the  for- 
mation of  immense  beds  of  marl ;  of  polyparia,  in  the 
creation  of  vast  coral  islands ;  of  marine  and  fresh- 
water shell-fish,  in  producing  the  beds  of  limestone, 
which  are  supposed  to  constitute  one  seventh  part  of 
the  crust  of  the  globe ;  of  the  shells,  reptiles,  and 
fishes,  which  have  formed  various  kinds  of.  marble; 
of  the  corals,  sponges,  and  radiata,  that  have  formed  the 
beds  of  chalk  and  flint;  and  of  many  others,  which, 
in  the  striking  language  of  Mantell,  have  caused  the 
whole  surface  of  our  earth  to  pass  through  the  "  won- 
derful laboratory  of  life." 

To  conclude  this  topic,  we  have  a  few  words  to  say 
of  the  geological  influence  of  man.  By  the  destruc- 


228  GEOLOGICAL    MUTATIONS. 

tion  of  animals  ;  by  the  distribution  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals ;  by  altering  the  climate  of  large  tracts  of  coun- 
try by  means  of  cultivation  ;  by  resisting  the  en- 
croachments of  rivers  and  of  the  ocean ;  by  reducing 
hills  and  mountains  ;  by  furnishing  the  spoils  of  his 
own  power,  and  of  the  products  of  his  art,  to  make  up 
portions  of  soil ;  man  has  exerted  some  influence  in 
changing  the  earth's  surface;  —  but  in  comparison  with 
the  achievements  even  of  animals  invisible  to  the  naked 
eye,  —  of  beings  which  live,  flourish,  and  die,  without 
the  notice  of  the  lord  of  creation,  —  the  labors  of  the 
human  race,  in  a  geological  view,  sink  into  utter  in- 
significance. 

General  Inferences.  —  From  a  view  of  these  facts, 
Professor  Hitchcock  draws  the  following  conclusions. 
Beds  of  clay  need  only  to  be  consolidated  to  become 
clay  slate,  grauwacke  slate,  or  shale.  The  same  is 
true  of  fine  mud.  Sand,  consolidated  by  carbonate 
of  lime,  will  produce  calcareous  sandstone ;  by  iron, 
ferruginous  sandstone.  Drift,  in  like  manner,  will 
form  conglomerates  of  every  age,  according  to  the 
variations  in  the  agents  of  consolidation.  Marls  need 
only  to  be  consolidated  to  form  argillaceous  lime- 
stones ;  and  if  sand  be  mixed  with  marl,  the  limestone 
will  be  silicious.  Coral  reefs,  and  deposits  of  traves- 
tin,  subjected  to  strong  heat  under  pressure,  will  pro- 
duce those  secondary  limestones  which  are  more  or 
less  crystalline. 

The  formation  of  such  extensive  beds  of  rock-salt 
and  gypsum,  as  occur  in  the  secondary  and  tertiary 
rocks,  it  is  difficult  to  explain  by  any  cause  now  in  op- 
eration. This  is  particularly  the  fact  in  respect  to  the 


CHEMICAL   AGENCIES.  —  IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.      239 

latter,  since  we  know  that  few  springs  deposit  it,  and 
these  in  small  quantities. 


CHEMICAL  AGENCIES. 

WE  have  already  alluded  to  the  importance  of  a 
knowledge  of  chemistry  to  a  full  understanding  of  the 
subject  of  geology ;  and  we  may  here  add,  that  such 
a  knowledge  only  can  fully  apprize  us  of  the  important 
agency  of  chemical  causes  in  producing  geological 
changes  upon  the  earth's  surface.  Even  excluding 
earthquakes  and  volcanoes,  —  which  we  shall  soon  con- 
sider, and  in  the  production  of  which,  whatever  theory 
we  may  adopt,  chemistry  is  largely  concerned,  —  we 
must  still  bear  in  mind,  that  the  action  of  acids,  alka- 
lies, and  salts  ever  has  been,  and  still  is,  the  means 
by  which  many  of  the  earth's  rocks  are  formed.  We 
have  already  noticed  some  instances  of  this,  in  the 
production  of  stalactites,  travestin,  &c. ;  and  we  may 
add,  that  limestone,  gypsum,  rock-salt,  and  a  multitude 
of  other  minerals,  are  known  to  be  formed  by  a  similar 
process  of  solution  and  chemical  combination. 


IGNEOUS  AGENCIES. 

VOLCANOES. 

THE  subject  of  volcanoes  and  volcanic  action  ii 
which  possesses  great  interest,  on  account  of  the  im- 
portant facts  developed  in  relation  to  the  history  of  our 
globe.  Volcanic  action,  says  Dr.  Mantell,  is  defined 


230  GEOLOGICAL   MUTATIONS. 

by  Humboldt  to  be  the  influence  exercised  by  the  in- 
ternal heat  of  a  planet  on  its  external  surface  during 
its  different  states  of  refrigeration,  by  which  convul- 
sions of  the  land,  or  earthquakes,  and  the  elevation  and 
subsidence  of  large  portions  of  the  solid  crust,  are  pro- 
duced. The  number  of  existing  volcanoes  is  estimated 
at  about  two  hundred;  of  which,  one  hundred  and 
sixteen  are  situated  in  America  or  its  islands,  and  the 
number  of  eruptions  has  been  reckoned  at  about 
twenty  in  a  year,  or  two  thousand  in  a  century. 

Of  the  modern  volcanoes,  there  are  two  kinds,  — 
extinct  and  active.  The  opening  of  a  volcano,  called  a 
crater,  is  usually  in  the  form  of  an  inverted  cone,  and 
around  it  rises  a  mountain  in  a  conical  form,  with  the 
top  cut  ofF,  resembling  a  sugar  loaf,  which  is  produced 
by  the  elevation  of  that  part  of  the  earth,  and  the  lava 
thrown  out.  Sometimes  volcanoes  emit  nothing  but 
watery  and  gaseous  substances,  and  then  they  are 
called  solfatara. 

Volcanic  openings,  or  vents,  in  general,  are  not 
formed  singly,  but  in  lines  or  zones,  which  sometimes 
reach  half  round  the  globe.  The  most  remarkable  of 
these  vents  or  openings  is  that  which,  commencing 
in  the  peninsula  of  Alaska,  on  the  coast  of  Russian 
America,  passes  over  the  Aleutian  Isles,  Kamtschatka, 
the  Kurile,  Japanese,  Philippine,  and  Moluccan  Isles, 
and  then,  turning,  includes  Sumbawa,  Java,  and  Su- 
matra, and  terminates  at  Barren  Island,  in  the  Bay  of 
Bengal.  •  There  is  also  another  very  extensive  line, 
which  commences  at  the  southern  extremity  of  South 
America,  follows  the  chain  of  the  Andes,  along  the 
Cordilleras  of  Mexico,  thence  to  California,  and  so 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  231 

northward  to  the  Columbia  River,  crossing  it  between 
the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Another, 
also,  one  thousand  miles  long  and  ten  degrees  of  lati- 
tude in  breadth,  reaches  from  the  Azores  to  the  Gas- 
pian  Sea.  There  are  other  volcanoes  which  are  not 
so  arranged  in  lines  or  zones,  and  these  are  termed 
central  volcanoes,  —  as  those  of  Iceland,  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  Society  Isles,  Island  of  Bourbon,  &c. 

As  so  large  a  proportion  —  two  thirds,  it  is  said  — 
of  volcanoes  are  situated  on  islands  of  the  sea,  it 
is  inferred  that  water  performs  an  important  part  in 
their  agency.  The  commonly  admitted  belief  is,  that 
they  are  produced  by  the  expansive  force  of  steam 
and  gases,  as  we  shall  show  hereafter.  The  inter- 
vals of  repose  are  of  greater  or  less  length,  varying 
from  a  few  months  or  years,  to  even  seventeen  hun- 
dred years.  This  latter  period,  it  is  said,  has  inter- 
vened between  two  eruptions.  As  a  general  fact,  an 
eruption  is  preceded  by  earthquakes  ;  the  air  sinks  into 
a  dead  stillness,  and  becomes  oppressive  for  breathing ; 
noises  are  heard  in  the  mountain,  while  the  fountains 
near  it  are  dried  up.  A  sudden  explosion  takes  place, 
and  this  is  followed  by  vast  clouds  of  vapor  and  smoke, 
darkening  the  air,  except  when  relieved  by  flashes  of 
lightning  ;  then,  again,  by  showers  of  ashes  and  stones ; 
and,  lastly,  by  streams  of  red-hot  lava,  which  pour  over 
the  crater  and  spread  themselves  across  the  country. 

ERUPTION  ON  THE  ISLAND  OF  SUMBAWA.  —  The  most 
remarkable  volcanic  eruption  of  modern  times  took 
place  in  1815,  in  this  island,  which  is  one  of  the 
Moluccas.  It  commenced  on  the  5th  of  April,  and  did 
not  entirely  cease  till  the  following  July.  The  explo- 


232  GEOLOGICAL  MUTATIONS. 

sions  were  heard  in  Sumatra,  nine  hundred  and  seventy 
miles  distant  in  one  direction,  and  at  Ternate  in  the 
opposite  direction,  seven  hundred  and  twenty  miles. 
So  heavy  was  the  fall  of  ashes  at  the  distance  of  forty 
miles,  that  houses  were  crushed  and  destroyed  beneath 
them.  Towards  Celebes,  they  were  carried  to  the 
distance  of  two  hundred  and  seventeen  miles,  and 
towards  Java  three  hundred,  so  as  to  occasion  a  dark- 
ness greater  than  that  of  the  darkest  night.  On  the 
12th  of  April,  the  floating  cinders  to  the  westward  of 
Sumatra  were  two  feet  thick ;  and  ships  were  forced 
through  them  with  difficulty.  Large  tracts  of  country 
were  covered  by  the  lava ;  and  out  of  twelve  thousand 
inhabitants  of  the  island,  only  twenty-six  survived. 

During  the  great  eruption  of  the  volcano  of  Cosi- 
guina,  in  Guatimala,  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  in 
1835,  ashes  fell  on  the  island  of  Jamaica,  eight  hun- 
dred miles  eastward,  and  upon  the  deck  of  a  vessel 
twelve  hundred  miles  westward. 

In  Mexico,  volcanic  agency  has  exerted  itself  over  a 
great  extent,  and  from  a  very  early  peried.  Among 
the  most  remarkable  of  the  eruptions  thus  produced, 
that  of  Jorullo  is  deserving  of  notice. 

An  extensive  cultivated  plain,  called  the  Malpays, 
covered  by  fields  of  sugar,  indigo,  and  cotton,  irrigated 
by  streams,  and  bounded  by  basaltic  mountains,  con- 
stituted a  district  remarkable  for  its  fertility.  In  June, 
1759,  alarming  subterranean  sounds  were  heard,  ac- 
companied by  frequent  earthquakes,  which  were  suc- 
ceeded by  others  for  several  weeks,  to  the  great  con- 
sternation of  the  neighbouring  inhabitants.  In  Septem- 
ber, tranquillity  appeared  to  be  reestablished,  when,  on 


IGNEOUS    AGENCIES.  233 

the  night  of  the  28th,  the  subterranean  noise  was  again 
heard,  and  the  plain  of  the  Malpays,  from  three  to 
four  miles  in  extent,  rose  up  in  the  shape  of  a  bladder, 
to  the  height  of  nearly  1700  feet,  flames  issued  forth, 
fragments  of  red-hot  stones  were  thrown  to  prodigious 
heights,  and,  through  a  thick  cloud  of  ashes,  illumined 
by  volcanic  fire,  the  softened  surface  of  the  earth  was 
seen  to  swell  up  like  an  agitated  sea. 

A  huge  cone,  above  five  hundred  feet  high,  was 
thrown  up,  and  five  smaller  conical  mounds,  and  thou- 
sands of  lesser  cones,  —  called  by  the  natives  hornitos, 
or  ovens,  —  issued  forth  from  the  upraised  plain. 
These  consist  of  clay,  intermingled  with  decomposed 
basalt,  each  cone  being  a  fumerole,  from  which  issues 
thick  vapor.  The  central  cone  of  Jorullo  is  still  burn- 
ing, and,  on  one  side  has  thrown  up  an  immense  quan- 
tity of  scorified  and  basaltic  lava,  containing  fragments 
of  primary  rocks.  Two  rivers  of  thermal  water,  of  the 
temperature  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  degrees 
'of  Fahrenheit,  have  burst  through  the  argillaceous 
vault  of  the  hornitos,  and  flow  into  the  neighbouring 
plain. 

It  has  sometimes  happened,  that,  during  a  violent 
eruption,  the  whole  mountain  or  cone  of  a  volcano 
has  either  been  blown  to  pieces,  or  fallen  into  the  gulf 
beneath,  its  place  being  afterwards  occupied  by  a  lake. 
As  an  example,  it  is  mentioned,  that,  in  1772,  the 
Papandayang,  a  large  volcano  in  the  island  of  Java, 
after  a  short  and  severe  eruption,  fell  in  and  disap- 
peared, spreading  itself  over  an  extent  of  fifteen  miles 
long  and  six  broad,  and  burying  forty  villages,  with  two 
thousand  nine  hundred  and  fifty-seven  inhabitants. 


234  GEOLOGICAL   MUTATIONS. 

In  1638,  also,  the  Pic,  a  volcano  in  the  island  of  Ti- 
mor, high  enough  to  be  seen  three  hundred  miles  off, 
disappeared,  and  its  place  is  now  occupied  by  a  lake. 
Many  lakes  in  Italy  are  supposed  to  have  been  thus 
formed.  It  is  also  recorded,  that  a  volcano,  occupying 
the  same  site  as  Vesuvius,  was  destroyed  in  the  year 
79,  the  remains  of  which  now  constitute  a  circular 
ridge,  called  Somma,  several  miles  in  diameter.  The 
present  cone  of  Vesuvius  has  risen  upon  the  ruins. 

The  grand  European  centre  of  volcanic  power  is 
in  Southern  Italy,  and  this  has  for  ages  been  in  a  state 
of  activity,  Etna,  Vesuvius,  and  the  Lipari  Isles  being 
the  vents  through  which  its  red-hot  materials  have  been 
poured  out 

VESUVIUS.  —  This  celebrated  mountain  is  about  four 
thousand  feet  high.  Its  summit  is  now  broken  and 
irregular  ;  but  when  Northern  Italy  was  first  colonized 
by  the  Greeks,  "  its  cone  was  of  a  regular  form,  with 
a  flattish  summit,  where  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
crater,  nearly  rilled  up,  had  left  a  slight  depression, 
covered  in  its  interior  by  wild  vines,  and  with  a  sterile 
plain  at  the  bottom."  From  the  earliest  period  to 
which  tradition  refers,  to  the  first  century  of  the 
Christian  era,  this  mountain  had  exhibited  no  appear- 
ance of  activity;  but  we  then  arrive  at  a  crisis  in 
the  volcanic  action  of  this  district,  which  gave  rise  to 
"one  of  the  most  interesting  events  witnessed  by  man, 
during  the  brief  period  throughout  which  he  has  ob- 
served the  physical  changes  of  the  earth's  surface." 

In  the  year  63,  Vesuvius  exhibited  the  first  symp- 
tom of  internal  change  in  an  earthquake,  which  occa- 
sioned considerable  damage  to  many  neighbouring 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  235 

cities,  and  of  whose  effects  traces  may  yet  be  wit- 
nessed among  the  interesting  memorials  of  the  awful 
catastrophe  which  soon  afterwards  took  place.  After 
this  event  slight  shocks  of  earthquakes  were  frequent, 
when,  on  the  24th  of  August,  in  the  year  79,  a  tre- 
mendous eruption  of  the  long  pent  up  incandescent 
materials  of  the  volcano  burst  forth,  and  spread  de- 
struction over  the  surrounding  country,  overwhelming 
three  cities,  with  many  of  their  inhabitants,  and  bury- 
ing all  traces  of  their  existence  beneath  immense  ac- 
cumulations of  ashes,  sand,  and  scorise.  All  the  fearful 
circumstances  connected  with  this  event,  and  the  at- 
tendant physical  phenomena,  are  so  well  known,  that 
it  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  upon  the  subject. 

From  that  period  to  the  present  time,  the  internal 
fires  of  Italy  have  resumed  their  ancient  focus,  and 
Vesuvius,  with  occasional  periods  of  tranquillity,  has 
been  more  or  less  active.  The  principal  eruptions  are 
recorded  in  Mr.  LyelPs  interesting  volume.  We  can 
allude  to  but  one  other  remarkable  event,  which  hap- 
pened in  1538.  After  frequent  earthquakes,  a  gulf 
opened  near  the  town  of  Tripergola,  which  discharged 
mud,  pumice-stones,  and  ashes,  and  threw  up,  in  the 
course  of  one  day  and  night,  a  mound  of  volcanic  mate- 
rials, now  called  Monte  Nuovo,  a  mile  and  a  half 
in  circumference  at  the  base,  and  four  hundred  and 
forty  feet  in  height ;  at  the  same  time,  the  coast  to 
beyond  Puzzuoli  was  permanently  elevated  many  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean. 

ERUPTIONS  OF  VESUVIUS.  —  In  the  early  periods  of 
activity,  violent  explosions,  with  showers  of  scorise, 
ashes,  and  sand,  characterize  the  eruptions  of  Vesuvius; 


236  GEOLOGICAL    MUTATIONS. 

but  since  the  existence  of  the  present  crater,  lava  cur- 
rents have  generally  been  ejected.  The  appearance 
of  an  ordinary  eruption,  seen  by  night,  is  thus  graphi- 
cally described  by  a  late  traveller. 

"  It  was  about  half  past  ten  when  we  reached  the 
foot  of  the  craters,  which  were  both  tremendously  agi- 
tated. The  great  vent  threw  up  immense  columns  of 
fire,  mingled  with  the  blackest  smoke  and  sand.  Each 
explosion  of  fire  was  preceded  by  a  bellowing  of 
thunder  in  the  mountain.  The  smaller  mouth  was 
much  more  active  ;  and  the  explosions  followed  each 
other  so  rapidly,  that  we  could  not  count  three  seconds 
between  them.  The  stones  which  were  emitted  were 
fourteen  seconds  in  falling  back  to  the  crater ;  conse- 
quently, there  were  always  five  or  six  explosions, 
sometimes  more  than  twenty,  in  the  air  at  once. 
These  stones  were  thrown  up  perpendicularly,  in  the 
shape  of  a  wide-spreading  sheaf,  producing  the  most 
magnificent  effect  imaginable.  The  smallest  stones 
appeared  to  be  of  the  size  of  cannon-balls;  the 
greater  were  like  bomb-shells ;  but  others  were  pieces 
of  rock,  five  or  six  cubic  feet  in  size,  and  some  of 
most  enormous  dimensions  ;  the  latter  generally  fell 
on  the  ridge  of  the  crater,  and  rolled  down  its  sides, 
splitting  into  fragments  as  they,  struck  against  the  hard 
and  cutting  masses  of  cold  lava.  The  smoke  emitted 
by  the  smaller  cone  was  white,  and  its  appearance  was 
inconceivably  grand  and  beautiful ;  but  the  other  crater, 
though  less  active,  was  much  more  terrible ;  and  the 
thick  blackness  of  its  gigantic  columns  of  smoke  part- 
ly concealed  the  fire  which  it  vomited.  Occasionally, 
both  burst  forth  at  the  same  instant,  and  with  the 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  237 

most  tremendous  fury  ;  sometimes  mingling  their  ejectr 
ed  stones. 

"  If  any  person  could  accurately  fancy  the  effect 
of  five  hundred  thousand  sky-rockets,  darting  up  at 
once  to  a  height  of  three  or  four  thousand  feet,  and 
then  falling  back  in  the  shape  of  red-hot  balls,  shells, 
and  large  rocks  of  fire,  he  might  have  an  idea  of  a 
single  explosion  of  this  burning  mountain  ;  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  any  imagination  can  conceive  the 
effect  of  one  hundred  such  explosions  in  the  space  of 
five  minutes,  or  of  twelve  hundred  or  more  in  the 
course  of  an  hour,  as  we  saw  them ;  yet  this  was 
only  a  part  of  the  sublime  spectacle  before  us. 

"  On  emerging  from  the  darkness,  occasioned  by 
the  small  crater  being  hidden  by  the  large  one,  as 
we  passed  round  to  the  other  side  of  the  mountain, 
we  found  the  whole  scene  illuminated  by  the  river  of 
lava,  which  gushed  out  of  the  valley  formed  by  the 
craters,  and  the  hill  on  which  we  now  stood.  The 
fiery  current  was  narrow  at  its  source,  apparently  not 
more  than  eighteen  inches  in  breadth,  but  it  quickly 
widened,  and  soon  divided  into  two  streams,  one  of 
which  was  at  least  forty  feet  wide,  and  the  other 
somewhat  less ;  between  them  was  a  sort  of  island,  be- 
fore which  they  reunited  into  one  broad  river,  which 
was  at  length  lost  sight  of  in  the  deep  windings  and 
ravines  of  the  mountain." 

In  an  eruption  witnessed  by  Sir  W.  Hamilton,  jets 
of  liquid  lava,  mingled  with  stones  and  scoriae,  were 
thrown  up  to  the  height  of  ten  thousand  feet.  The 
streams  of  lava  issue  with  great  velocity,  and  in  a 
state  of  perfect  fusion  ;  but  as  they  cool  on  the  sur- 


238  GEOLOGICAL    MTTTATIONS. 

face,  they  crack,  and  the  matter  becomes  vesicular  or 
porous ;  at  a  considerable  distance  from  their  source, 
they  resemble  a  heap  of  scoriae,  or  cinders  from  an 
iron-foundry,  rolling  slowly  along,  and  falling,  with  a 
rattling  noise,  one  over  the  other. 

ETNA.  —  This  volcanic  cone,  which  is  entirely  com- 
posed of  lavas,  rises  majestically  to  an  altitude  of 
nearly  two  miles,  the  circumference  of  its  base  being 
nearly  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles.  Compared  with 
this  prodigious  mass  of  igneous  products,  Vesuvius  sinks 
into  insignificance ;  for,  while  the  lava-streams  of  the 
latter  do  not  exceed  seven  miles,  those  of  Etna  are 
from  fifteen  to  thirty  miles  in  length,  five  in  breadth, 
and  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  thickness.  The 
grand  feature  of  Etna  is  the  Val  del  Bove,  a  vast 
plain,  partially  encircled  by  subordinate  volcanic  moun- 
tains, some  of  which  are  covered  with  forests,  while 
others  are  bare  and  arid,  like  those  of  Auvergne. 
This  plain,  which  is  five  miles  in  diameter,  has  been 
repeatedly  deluged  by  streams  of  lava,  and  presents 
a  surface  more  uneven  and  rugged  than  that  of  the 
most  tempestuous  sea;  it  is  inclosed  on  three  sides 
by  precipitous  rocks,  from  two  to  three  thousand 
feet  high.  The  face  of  these  precipices  is  broken  by 
vertical  walls  of  lava,  which  stand  out  in  relief,  are  ex- 
ceedingly picturesque,  and  of  immense  altitude.  The 
base  of  Etna,  for  an  extent  of  twelve  miles  upwards, 
is  richly  cultivated,  and  abounds  in  vineyards  and 
pastures,  with  towns,  monasteries,  and  villages.  The 
middle  region  is  woody,  being  covered  with  forests  of 
oak  and  chestnut,  and  a  luxuriant  vegetation.  From 
about  a  mile  below  the  summit,  all  is  sterility  and 


IGNEOUS  AGENCIES.  239 

desolation,  and  the  highest  point  is  covered  with  eter- 
nal snow.  The  crater,  from  which  a  volume  of  vapor 
constantly  escapes,  is  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  high, 
and  three  quarters  of  a  mile  in  circumference.  The 
varied  and  picturesque  scenery  of  this  extraordinary 
mountain,  the  physical  changes  now  in  progress,  as 
well  as  those  which  have  taken  place  in  periods  far 
beyond  all  human  history  or  tradition,  but  of  which 
natural  records  still  remain,  are  sketched  by  Mr.  Lyell 
with  the  vigor  and  fidelity  which  characterize  all  the 
productions  of  his  pen. 

THE  LIPARI  ISLANDS,  between  Naples  and  Sicily, 
lying  as  it  were  midway  between  Vesuvius  and  Etna, 
are  replete  with  the  highest  interest.  The  crater  of 
one  of  the  islands,  Stromboli,  has  been  in  constant  ac- 
tivity from  the  earliest  historical  period.  It  always 
contains  melted  lava,  in  constant  motion,  which  at 
uncertain  intervals  suddenly  rises,  and  large  bubbles 
appear,  which,  upon  reaching  to  the  brim  of  the 
crater,  explode  with  a  sound  resembling  thunder,  and 
masses  of  lava,  with  dust  and  smoke,  are  thrown  into 
the  air ;  the  incandescent  mass  then  sinks  down  to  its 
former  level.  The  cliffs  of  St.  Calogero,  which  are 
about  two  hundred  feet  high,  extend  four  or  five  miles 
along  the  coast,  and  consist  of  horizontal  beds  of  vol- 
canic tuff.  From  the  perennial  emanation  of  sulphu- 
rous vapor,  the  rocks  are  decomposed  ;  alum,  gypsum, 
and  other  sulphuric  salts  are  formed,  as  well  as  muri- 
ate of  ammonia,  and  silky  crystals  of  boracic  acid. 
The  dark  clays  have  become  yellow  white,  red,  pink, 
checkered,  and  marked  with  stripes  of  various  colors. 
Veins  of  chalcedony  and  opal  occur,  and  pumice- 


240  GEOLOGICAL    MUTATIONS. 

stone  and  obsidian  are  abundant.  Dikes  and  veins 
of  trachyte  intersect  the  tuff  in  every  direction,  and 
bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  intrusions  of  trap 
into  the  secondary  strata. 

HAWAII,  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  which  is 
about  seventy  miles  in  length,  and  covers  an  area  of 
four  thousand  square  miles,  is  a  complete  mass  of  vol- 
canic matter,  perforated  by  innumerable  craters.  It 
is,  in  fact,  a  hollow  cone,  rising  to  an  altitude  of  sixteen 
thousand  feet,  having  numerous  vents,  over  a  vast  in- 
candescent mass,  which  doubtless  extends  beneath  the 
bed  of  the  ocean  ;  the  island  forming  a  pyramidal  fun- 
nel from  the  furnace  beneath  to  the  atmosphere.  The 
following  account  of  a  visit  to  the  crater  affords  a 
striking  picture  of  the  splendid,  but  awful,  spectacle 
which  this  volcano  presents. 

"After  travelling  over  extensive  plains,  and  climb- 
ing rugged  steeps,  all  bearing  testimony  of  volcanic 
origin,  the  crater  of  Kirauea  suddenly  burst  upon 
our  view.  We  found  ourselves  on  the  edge  of  a 
precipice,  with  a  vast  plain  before  us,  fifteen  or  six- 
teen miles  in  circumference,  and  sunk  from  two  to 
four  hundred  feet  below  its  original  level.  The  sur- 
face of  this  plain  was  uneven,  and  strewed  over  with 
large  stones  and  volcanic  rocks ;  and  in  the  centre  of 
it  was  the  great  crater,  at  the  distance  of  a  mile  and 
a  half  from  the  precipice  on  which  we  were  standing. 
We  proceeded  to  the  north  end  of  the  ridge,  where,  the 
precipice  being  less  steep,  a  descent  to  the  plain  below 
seemed  practicable  ;  but  it  required  the  greatest  cau- 
tion, as  the  stones  and  fragments  of  rock  frequently 
gave  way  under  our  feet,  and  rolled  down  from  above. 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  241 

"  The  steep  which  we  had  descended  was  formed  of 
volcanic  matter,  apparently  of  light  red  and  gray 
vesicular  lava,  lying  in  horizontal  strata  varying  in 
thickness  from  one  to  forty  feet.  In  a  few  places, 
the  different  masses  were  rent  in  perpendicular  and 
oblique  directions  from  top  to  bottom,  either  by  earth- 
quakes, or  by  other  violent  convulsions  of  the  ground, 
connected  with  the  action  of  the  adjacent  volcano. 

"  After  walking  some  distance  over  the  plain,  which 
in  several  places  sounded  hollow  under  our  feet,  we 
came  to  the  edge  of  the  great  crater.  Before  us 
yawned  an  immense  gulf,  in  the  form  of  a  crescent, 
about  two  miles  in  length,  from  northeast  to  southwest, 
one  mile  in  width,  and  eight  hundred  feet  deep.  The 
bottom  was  covered  with  lava,  and  the  southwest  and 
northern  parts  were  one  vast  flood  of  burning  matter. 
Fifty-one  conical  islands,  of  varied  forms  and  size, 
containing  as  many  craters,  rose  either  round  the  edge 
or  from  the  surface  of  the  burning  lake.  Twenty-two 
constantly  emitted  columns  of  gray  smoke,  or  pyra- 
mids of  brilliant  flame,  and,  at  the  same  time,  vomit- 
ed from  their  ignited  mouths  streams  of  lava,  which 
rolled  in  blazing  torrents  down  their  black,  indented 
sides  into  the  boiling  mass  below. 

"  The  existence  of  these  conical  craters  led  us  to 
conclude  that  the  boiling  caldron  of  lava  did  not  form 
the  focus  of  the  volcano ;  that  this  mass  of  lava  was 
comparatively  shallow ;  and  that  the  basin  which  con- 
tained it  was  separated  by  a  stratum  of  solid  matter 
from  the  great  volcanic  abyss,  which  constantly 
poured  out  its  melted  contents,  through  these  numer- 
ous craters,  into  this  upper  reservoir.  We  were  farther 
16 


242  GEOLOGICAL    MUTATIONS. 

inclined  to  this  opinion  from  the  vast  columns  of  va- 
por continually  ascending  from  the  chasms  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  sulphur  banks  and  pools  of  water,  for 
they  must  have  been  produced  by  other  fire  than  that 
which  caused  the  ebullition  in  the  lava,  at  the  bottom 
of  the  great  crater ;  and  also  by  noticing  a  number  of 
small  craters  in  vigorous  action,  high  up  the  sides  of 
the  great  gulf,  and  apparently  quite  detached,  from  it. 
"  The  streams  of  lava  which  they  emitted  rolled 
down  into  the  lake,  and  mingled  with  the  melted 
mass,  which,  though  thrown  up  by  different  aper- 
tures, had  perhaps  been  originally  fused  in  one  vast 
furnace.  The  sides  of  the  gulf  before  us,  although 
composed  of  different  strata  of  ancient  lava,  were 
perpendicular  for  about  four  hundred  feet,  and  rose 
from  a  wide,  horizontal  ledge  of  solid  black  lava, 
of  irregular  width,  but  extending  completely  round. 
Beneath  this  ledge,  the  sides  sloped  gradually  towards 
the  burning  lake,  which  was,  as  nearly  as  we  could 
judge,  three  or  four  hundred  feet  lower.  It  was  evi- 
dent that  the  large  crater  had  been  recently  filled  with 
liquid  lava  up  to  this  black  ledge,  and  had,  by  some 
subterranean  canal,  emptied  itself  into  the  sea,  or  upon 
the  low  land  on  the  shore  ;  and,  in  all  probability,  this 
evacuation  had  caused  the  inundation  of  the  Kapapala 
coast,  which  took  place,  as  we  afterwards  learned, 
about  three  weeks  prior  to  our  visit.  The  gray,  and 
in  some  places  apparently  calcined,  sides  of  the  great 
crater  before  us  ;  the  fissures  which  intersected  the 
surface  of  the  plain  on  which  we  were  standing ;  the 
long  banks  of  sulphur  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
abyss ;  the  vigorous  action  of  the  numerous  small 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  243 

craters  on  its  borders ;  the  dense  columns  of  vapor  and 
smoke  that  rose  out  of  it,  at  the  north  and  south  ends 
of  the  plain ;  together  with  the  ridge  of  steep  rocks  by 
which  it  was  surrounded,  rising  three  or  four  hundred 
feet  in  perpendicular  height,  presented  an  immense 
volcanic  panorama,  the  effect  of  which  was  greatly 
augmented  by  the  constant  roaring  of  the  vast  fur- 
naces below." 

In  June,  1825,  Mr.  Stewart,  accompanied  by  Lord 
Byron,  and  a  party  from  the  Blonde  frigate,  went  to 
Kirauea,  and  descended  to  the  bottom  of  the  crater.  In 
his  account  of  the  scene,  Mr.  Stewart  says,  "  The  gen- 
eral aspect  of  the  crater  may  be  compared  to  that  which 
the  Otsego  Lake  would  present,  if  the  ice  with  which 
it  is  covered  in  winter  were  suddenly  broken  up  by  a 
heavy  storm,  and  as  suddenly  frozen  again,  while 
large  slabs  and  blocks  were  still  toppling  and  dashing 
and  heaping  against  each  other  with  the  motion  of 
the  waves.  At  midnight,  the  volcano  suddenly  began 
roaring  and  laboring  with  redoubled  activity,  and  the 
confusion  of  noises  was  prodigiously  great.  The 
sounds  were  not  fixed  or  confined  to  one  place,  but 
rolled  from  one  end  of  the  crater  to  the  other ;  some- 
times seeming  to  be  immediately  under  us,  when  a 
sensible  tremor  of  the  ground  on  which  we  stood  took 
place ;  and  then  again  rushing  on  to  the  farthest  end 
with  incalculable  velocity.  Almost  at  the  same  in- 
stant, a  dense  column  of  heavy,  black  smoke  was  seen 
rising  from  the  crater  directly  in  front,  the  subter- 
ranean struggle  ceased,  and  immediately  after,  flames 
burst  from  a  large  cone,  near  which  we  had  been  in 
the  morning,  and  which  then  appeared  to  have  been 
long  inactive. 


244  GEOLOGICAL    MUTATIONS. 

"  Red-hot  stones,  cinders,  and  ashes  were  also  pro- 
pelled to  a  great  height  with  immense  violence ;  and 
shortly  after,  the  molten  lava  came  boiling  up,  and  flowed 
down  the  sides  of  the  cone,  and  over  the  surrounding 
scoriae,  in  the  most  beautiful  curved  streams,  glittering 
with  a  brilliancy  quite  indescribable.  At  .the  same 
time,  a  whole  lake  of  fire  opened  in  a  more  distant 
part.  This  could  not  have  been  less  than  two  miles 
in  circumference,  and  its  action  was  more  horribly 
sublime  than  any  thing  I  ever  imagined  to  exist,  even 
in  the  ideal  visions  of  unearthly  things.  Its  surface  had 
all  the  agitation  of  an  ocean;  billow  after  billow 
tossed  its  monstrous  bosom  in  the  air;  and  occasional- 
ly those  from  different  directions  burst  with  such  vio- 
lence, as,  in  the  concussion,  to  dash  the  fiery  spray 
forty  or  fifty  feet  high.  It  was  at  once  the  most  splen- 
did and.  fearful  of  spectacles." 

The  following  account  of  this  volcano,  and  of  the 
eruption  in  October,  1840,  is  contained  in  a  letter  to 
Professor  Silliman.  "  It  is  an  immense  pit,  one  thou- 
sand feet  deep  and  six  miles  in  circuit,  with  perpen- 
dicular walls,  except  at  one  point  where  it  is  reached 
by  a  steep  descent ;  and  the  whole  of  this  vast  cal- 
dron, full  of  boiling,  bubbling,  and  spouting  lava. 
The  surface  at  one  moment  black  as  ink,  and  the  next 
exhibiting  rivers  and  pools,  and  jets  of  a  hideous  blood- 
red  fluid,  that  was  sometimes  thrown  up  to  a  height  of 
fifty  or  sixty  feet,  and  fell  back  with  a  sudden  plashing 
that  was  indescribably  awful.  The  aspect  of  the 
whole  was  hellish,  —  no  other  term  can  express  it. 
By  night,  it  was  grand  beyond  description.  The  fre- 
quent lightings  up,  the  hissings  and  deep  muttering 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  245 

explosions,  reminded  me  of  some  great  city  in  flames, 
where  were  magazines  of  gunpowder  or  mines  con- 
tinually exploding.  Vesuvius  is  a  fool  to  it.  Just 
previous  to  my  visit,  the  lava  had  burst  out  at  a  new 
place,  about  six  miles  northeast  of  the  crater,  and 
flowed  down  to  the  sea  in  a  stream  forty  miles  in 
length  by  from  one  to  seven  in  breadth.  I  saw  the 
light  one  hundred  miles  off.  It  reached  the  sea  in  five 
days,  threw  up  three  hills  of  from  twenty  to  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  high,  gained  two  thousand  feet 
seaward  from  the  old  line  of  coast,  by  three  fourths 
of  a  mile  in  width,  and  heated  the  water  for  fifteen 
miles  either  side  to  such  an  extent,  that  the  fishes 
were  heaped  up  in  myriads  on  shore,  scalded  to  death. 
Its  falling  into  the  sea  was  accompanied  with  tremen- 
dous hissings,  and  detonations  like  constant  discharges 
of  heavy  artillery,  distinctly  heard  at  Helo,  twenty 
miles  distant." 

As  to  the  amount  of  force  exerted  in  volcanoes, 
we  can  form  some  estimate  from  the  quantity  of  lava 
ejected,  and  the  distance  to  which  rocks  have  been 
thrown ;  also,  by  computing  the  force  requisite  to  raise 
lava  to  the  tops  of  the  existing  craters  from  their  bases. 
Professor  Hitchcock  furnishes  the  following  data  under 
these  different  heads. 

Vesuvius,  more  than  three  thousand  feet  high,  has 
launched  scoriae  four  thousand  feet  above  the  summit. 
Cotopaxi,  nearly  eighteen  thousand  feet  high,  has  pro- 
jected matter  six  thousand  feet  above  its  summit ;  and 
once  it  threw  a  stone  of  one  hundred  and  nine  cubic 
yards  in  volume,  the  distance  of  nine  miles.  Taking 
the  specific  gravity  of  lava  at  2.8,  the  following 


246  GEOLOGICAL    MUTATIONS. 

table  shows  the  force  requisite  to  cause  it  to  flow  over 
the  tops  of  the  several  volcanoes,  whose  height  above 
the  sea  is  given  ;  the  velocity  produced  at  the  outset 
of  such  a  force,  called  its  initial  velocity,  is  also  given. 


Name.                                    h*(eel 

Force    exerted 
upon  the  lava 

Initial   v 
city  per  i 

' 

in  atmospheres. 

ond  in  f 

Stromboli  (highest  peak)           2,168 

176 

371 

Vesuvius           .            .              3,874 

314 

496 

Jorullo  (Mexico)     .            .       3,942 

319 

502 

Hecla  (Iceland)            .              5,106 

413 

570 

Etna            .            .            .     10,892 

882 

832 

Tenerifte           .            .            12,464 

1009 

896 

Mouna  Kea  (Sandwich  Isle^)  14,700 

1191 

966 

Popocatepetl  (Mexico)              17,712 

1435 

1062 

Mount  Elias             .            .     18,079 

1465 

1072 

Cotopaxi  (Quito)          .            18,869 

1492 

1104 

There  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  the  chimney  of  a 
volcano  extends  generally  as  much  below  the  level  of 
the  sea  as  it  does  above,  and  often,  probably,  fifty 
times  as  deep  ;  so  that  the  actual  force  pressing  upon 
the  lava  in  its  reservoir  may  be  far  greater  than  the 
second  column  of  the  preceding  table  represents,  and 
the  initial  velocity  much  greater  than  in  the  third 
column. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  amount  of  melted  matter 
thrown  out  by  Vesuvius,  in  the  eruption  of  1737,  was 
eleven  million  eight  hundred  and  thirty-nine  thousand 
one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  cubic  yards,  and  in  that 
of  1794,  twenty-two  million  four  hundred  and  thirty- 
five  thousand  five  hundred  and  twenty  cubic  yards. 
But  these  quantities  are  small,  compared  with  what 
Etna  has  sometimes  disgorged.  In  1669,  the  amount 
of  lava  was  twenty  times  greater  than  the  whole  mass 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  247 

of  the  mountain  ;  and  in  1660,  when  seventy-seven 
thousand  persons  were  destroyed,  the  lava  covered 
eighty-four  square  miles.  The  greatest  eruption  of 
modern  times,  however,  is  said  to  have  been  that  of 
Skaptar  Jokul,  in  Iceland,  in  1783.* 

NEW  ISLANDS  FORMED  BY  THE  AGENCY  OF  VOLCA- 
NOES.—  There  are  numerous  examples  of  this  phe- 
nomenon. The  celebrated  islands  of  Delos,  Rhodes, 
and  the  Cyclades,  in  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  are 
described  by  the  ancient  writers  as  having  had  such  an 
origin.  Livy,  the  Roman  historian,  mentions  a  similar 
event  about  the  time  of  the  death  of  Hannibal ;  and 
the  Roman  people  were  so  affrighted  by  it  and  its 
attendant  phenomena,  that  they  decreed  a  supplication 
to  the  gods  to  avert  the  displeasure  of  Heaven,  which 
they  thought  to  be  indicated  by  these  prodigies. 

In  1831,  a  volcanic  island  arose  in  the  Mediterranean, 
about  thirty  miles  off  the  southwest  coast  of  Sicily, 
where  previous  soundings  had  ascertained  the  depth  of 
the  sea  to  be  six  hundred  feet.  It  was  preceded  by  a 
fountain  of  steam  and  water,  and  at  length  a  small 
island  gradually  appeared,  having  a  crater  on  the  sum- 
mit, which  ejected  scorice,  ashes,  and  volumes  of  vapor ; 
the  sea  around  was  covered  with  floating  cinders  and 
dead  fish.  The  scoriae  were  of  a  grayish  black  color. 
The  crater  reached  an  elevation  of  nearly  two  hundred 
feet,  with  a  circumference  of  about  three  miles,  having 
a  circular  basin  full  of  boiling  water  of  a  dingy  color. 
It  continued  in  activity  for  three  weeks,  and  then  grad- 

*  For  an  account  of  this,  see  "  Glance  at  the  Sciences,"  ar- 
ticle, Geology. 


248  GEOLOGICAL   MUTATIONS. 

ually  disappeared.  In  1838,  two  years  after  its  de- 
struction, a  dangerous  reef  remained  eleven  feet  under 
the  water,  in  the  centre  of  which  was  a  black  volcan- 
ic rock,  —  probably  the  remains  of  the  solid  lava 
ejected  during  the  eruption,  —  surrounded  by  shoals 
of  sconce  and  sand.  From  these  facts  it  appears  that 
a  hill  eight  hundred  feet  high  was  here  formed  by 
a  submarine  volcanic  vent  in  the  course  of  a  few 
weeks. 

In  the  Azores,  a  small  island,  called  Sabrina,  rose 
up  in  1811,  which  was  three  hundred  feet  high  and 
a  mile  in  circumference ;  after  six  months,  it  disap- 
peared. It  is  also  recorded,  that  in  the  year  1720  a 
similar  island  arose,  which  was  six  miles  in  circum- 
ference. In  1707,  the  island  called  Isola  Nuova  was 
thrown  up  near  Santorini,  and  still  remains.  Just  be- 
fore the  great  eruption  of  Skaptar  Jokul,  in  Iceland,  in 
1783,  a  new  island  is  stated  to  have  appeared  off  the 
coast,  which  afterwards  vanished.  In  1796,  a  new 
island,  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  height  and  two 
miles  in  circumference,  rose  up  in  the  Aleutian  group, 
east  of  Kamtschatka,  and  still  remains.  Others,  yet 
larger,  are  also  mentioned.  In  the  same  archipelago, 
another  peak  arose  in  1814,  which  is  said  to  have 
been  three  thousand  feet  high. 

In  1538,  Monte  Nuovo,  in  the  Bay  of  Baise,  in  Italy, 
was  thrown  up  in  a  day  and  a  night,  and  remained 
permanently  elevated,  the  height  being  four  hundred 
and  forty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Its  base  is 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  in  circumference.  Many 
large  islands,  which  have  all  existed  from  the  earliest 
known  records,  also  appear  to  be  wholly,  or  mainly, 


IGNEOUS    AGENCIES.  249 

the  effect  of  volcanic  agency.  The  Sandwich  Islands, 
containing  four  thousand  square  miles,  and  one  point 
of  which  rises  eighteen  thousand  feet  above  the  ocean ; 
Teneriffe,  the  peak  of  which  is  thirteen  thousand  feet 
high ;  probably  Iceland,  Sicily,  Bourbon,  St.  Helena, 
Tristan  d'Acunha,  the  Madeira,  Faroe,  and  Azore 
islands ;  a  great  part  of  Java,  Sumatra,  Celebes,  and 
Japan  ;  —  all  were,  for  the  most  part,  lifted  from  the 
ocean,  by  the  agency  of  volcanic  fires. 

The  lava  which  is  thrown  forth  from  volcanoes,  be- 
ing a  non-conductor  of  heat,  is  often  very  long  in 
cooling.  It  is  stated,  that  in  the  case  of  Jorullo,  in 
Mexico,  a  heap  of  lava,  sixteen  hundred  feet  high, 
thrown  out  nearly  two  hundred  years  since,  is  not  yet 
cooled.  The  lava  thrown  out  by  Etna  in  1819  was 
moving  at  the  rate  of  a  yard  in  a  day,  nine  months 
after  the  eruption ;  and  the  lava  from  the  same  volca- 
no, at  a  previous  eruption,  was  in  motion  ten  years 
afterward.  * 

As  an  evidence  of  the  non-conducting  power  of 
lava,  a  circumstance  of  a  very  extraordinary  nature  is 
mentioned  by  Mr.  Lyell, —  that  of  the  preservation,  for 
ages,  of  a  glacier,  or  bed  of  ice,  from  having  been 
covered  and  protected  by  a  flood  of  red-hot  lava.  The 
intense  heat  experienced  in  the  South  of  Europe,  du- 
ring the  summer  and  autumn  of  1828,  caused  the 
usual  supplies  of  ice  entirely  to  fail.  Great  distress 
was  consequently  felt  for  want  of  a  commodity  re- 
garded in  those  countries  rather  as  an  article  of  neces- 
sity than  luxury.  Etna  was,  therefore,  carefully  ex- 
plored, in  the  hope  of  discovering  some  crevice  or 
natural  grotto  on  the  mountain,  where  drift  snow  was 


250  GEOLOGICAL   MUTATIONS. 

still  preserved.  Nor  was  the  search  unsuccessful  ;  for 
a  small  mass  of  perennial  ice,  at  the  foot  of  the  highest 
cone,  was  found  to  be  part  of  a  large,  continuous  glacier, 
covered  by  a  lava  current.  The  ice  was  quarried,  and 
the  super-position  of  the  lava  ascertained  to  continue 
for  several  hundred  yards.  Unfortunately,  the  ice  was 
so  extremely  hard,  and  the  removal  of  it  so  expensive, 
that  there  is  no  probability  of  the  operation's  being  re- 
newed. Mr.  Lyell  explains  this  apparently  paradoxi- 
cal fact,  by  supposing  that  a  deep  mass  of  drift  snow 
was  covered  by  a  stream  of  volcanic  sand,  which  is  an 
extremely  bad  conductor  of  heat;  and, thus  the  subse- 
quent liquid  lava  might  have  flowed  over  the  whole 
without  affecting  the  ice  beneath,  which,  at  such  a 
height,  —  ten  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
—  would  endure  as  long  as  the  snows  of  Mont  Blanc, 
unless  melted  by  volcanic  heat  from  above. 

There  are  some  volcanoes  which  are  incessantly  ac- 
tive. Of  this  class  is  Stromboli,  one  of  the  Lipari 
Islands.  For  at  least  two  thousand  years,  .this  has 
never  ceased  its  fiery  labors.  The  lava  is  said  never 
to  flow  over  the  top  of  the  crater ;  though  it  is  some- 
times discharged  through  a  fissure  into  the  sea,  killing 
the  fish,  which  are  thrown  on  the  shore  ready  cooked. 
It  is  said  to  be  more  active  in  stormy  than  in  fair 
weather,  also  in  winter  than  in  summer,  —  which  fact 
is  explained  by  the  different  degrees  of  pressure  ex- 
erted by  the  air  on  the  lava  at  different  times.  Thus, 
when  the  air  is  light,  the  internal  force  predominates  ; 
but  when  heavy,  it  restrains  the  energy  of  the  volcano. 

The  volcano  of  Popocatepetl,  in  Mexico,  which  is 
eighteen  .thousand  feet  high,  is  continually  pouring 


IGNEOtTS   AGENCIES.  251 

forth  smoke.  Another  of  the  same  class  also  exists  in 
Lake  Nicaragua.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the 
terrific  volcano  of  Kirauea,  the  grand  appearance  of 
which  has  already  been  described. 

EXTINCT  VOLCANOES.  —  There  is,  as  has  already 
been  suggested,  a  class  of  volcanoes  called  extinct. 
These  are  of  very  different  ages ;  some  were  active, 
as  is  evident  from  their  appearance,  in  the  tertiary, 
and  others  in  the  glacial  period ;  there  are  others, 
still,  which  were  in  action  at  a  later  date.  The  ex- 
tinct volcanoes  of  Auvergne  and  the  South  of  France 
have  been  an  object  of  much  interest  to  geologists, 
and  have  been  described  by  Bakewell,  Daubeny,  Lyell, 
Scrope,  Murchison,  &c.  The  following  account  is 
furnished  by  Mantell,  being,  in  part,  borrowed  from 
Scrope's  "  Geology  of  Central  France." 

The  country  which  is  the  site  of  these  extinct  volca- 
noes may  be  described  as  a  vast  plain,  situated  in  the 
old  province  of  Auvergne  ;  it  is  so  remarkable  for 
its  fertility,  that  it  is  called  the  Garden  of  France,  — 
a  quality  attributable  to  the  detritus  of  volcanic  rocks, 
which  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  soil.  It  is 
inclosed  on  the  east  and  west  by  two  parallel  ranges 
of  gneiss  and  granite.  Its  average  breadth  is  twenty 
miles ;  its  length,  between  forty  and  fifty  ;  and  its  al- 
titude, about  twelve  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  surface  of  this  plain  is  formed  of  al- 
luvial deposits,  composed  of  granite  and  basaltic  peb- 
bles and  bowlders,  reposing  on  a  substratum  of  lime- 
stone. Hills  of  various  elevations,  composed  of  cal- 
careous rocks,  are  scattered  over  the  plam ;  and  the 
River  Allier  flows  through  the  district  over  beds  of 


252  GEOLOGICAL   MUTATIONS. 

limestone  or  sandstone,  except  where  it  has  excavated 
a  channel  to  the  foundation  rock  of  granite.  The 
hills,  composed  of  calcareous,  alluvial  deposits,  are  the 
remains  of  a  series  of  beds  which  once  constituted  an 
ancient  plain,  at  a  higher  elevation  than  the  present. 
Many  are  surmounted  by  a  crest  or  capping  of  basalt, 
to  which  their  preservation  is  probably  attributable. 
Others  have  escaped  destruction  by  being  protected 
by  horizontal  layers  of  a  durable  limestone.  We  have, 
then,  as  the  ground-plan  of  the  district,  an  extensive 
plain,  checkered  with  low  hills  of  fresh-water  limestone, 
which  are  capped  with  compact  lava  ;  the  boundaries 
of  the  plain  being  formed  of  ranges  of  primary  rocks, 
three  thousand  feet  in  altitude. 

To  the  westward  the  limestone  disappears,  and  a 
plateau  of  granite  rises  to  a  height  of  about  sixteen 
hundred  feet  above  the  valley  of  Clermont,  being  three 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  This  sup- 
ports a  chain  of  volcanic  cones  and  dome-shaped 
mountains,  about  seventy  in  number,  varying  in  alti- 
tude from  five  hundred  to  one  thousand  feet  above 
their  bases,  and  forming  an  irregular  range  nearly 
twenty  miles  in  length,  and  two  in  breadth.  The 
highest  point  in  this  range  is  the  Puy  de  Dome,  which 
is  four  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is 
composed  entirely  of  volcanic  matter ;  it  possesses  a 
regular  crater,  three  hundred  feet  deep,  and  nearly 
one  thousand  feet  in  circumference.  Many  of  these 
cones  retain  the  form  of  well  defined  craters,  and  their 
lava  currents  may  be  traced  as  readily  as  those  of 
Vesuvius. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  cones  is  the  Puy  de 


IGNEOUS    AGENCIES.  253 

Come,  which  rises  from  the  plain  to  the  height  of  nine 
hundred  feet ;  its  sides  are  covered  with  trees,  and  its 
summits  present  two  distinct  craters,  one  of  which  is 
two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in  depth.  A  stream  of 
lava  may  be  seen  to  have  issued  out  from  the  base  of 
the  mountain,  which,  at  a  short  distance,  from  having 
been  obstructed  by  a  mass  of  granite,  has  separated 
into  two  branches ;  these  can  be  traced  along  the 
gigantic  platforms,  and  down  the  side  of  a  hill  into  the 
adjacent  valley,  where  they  have  dispossessed  a  river 
of  its  bed,  and  constrained  it  to  work  out  a  fresh  chan- 
nel between  the  lava1  and  the  granite  of  the  opposite 
bank. 

Another  cone  rises  to  the  height  of  one  thousand 
feet  above  the  plain,  having  a  crater  nearly  six  hundred 
feet  in  vertical  depth,  and  a  lava  current  which  first 
falls  down  a  steep  declivity,  and  then  rolls  over  the 
plain  in  hilly  waves  of  black  and  scorified  rocks.  In 
one  part  of  this  volcanic  group  is  a  circular  system  of 
cones,  apparently  the  produce  of  several  rapidly  suc- 
ceeding eruptions.  The  extraordinary  character  of 
this  scene  impresses  it  for  ever  on  the  memory  ;  for 
there  is,  perhaps,  no  spot,  even  among  the  Phlegrsean 
fields  of  Italy,  which  more  strikingly  displays  the  char- 
acter of  volcanic  desolation.  Although  the  cones  are 
partially  covered  with  wood  and  herbage,  yet  the  sides 
of  many  are  still  naked  ;  and  the  interior  of  their 
broken  craters,  ragged,  black,  and  scorified,  and  the 
rocky  floods  of  lava  with  which  they  have  loaded  the 
plain,  have  a  freshness  of  aspect,  such  as  the  pro- 
ducts of  fire  alone  could  have  so  long  preserved,  and 
offer  a  striking  picture  of  the  operation  of  this  element 
in  all  its  most  terrible  energy. 


254  GEOLOGICAL    MUTATIONS. 

HERCCLANEUM  AND  POMPEII.  —  But  all  these  phe- 
nomena are  far  surpassed  in  interest  by  the  wonderful 
preservation  of  the  relics  of  the  cities  which  were  over- 
whelmed by  the  first  recorded  eruption  of  Vesuvius.  In 
the  words  of  an  eloquent  writer,  "  After  nearly  seven- 
teen centuries  had  rolled  away,  the  city  of  Pompeii 
was  disinterred  from  its  silent  tombs,  all  vivid  with  un- 
dimmed  hues ;  its  walls  fresh  as  if  painted  yesterday  ; 
not  a  tint  faded  on  the  rich  mosaic  of  its  floors  ;  in  its 
forum,  the  half-finished  columns,  as  left  by  the  work- 
man's hand  ;  before  the  trees  in  its  gardens,  the  sacri- 
ficial tripod  ;  in  its  halls,  the  chest  of  treasure  ;  in  its 
baths,  the  strigil ;  in  its  theatres,  the  counter  of  admis- 
sion ;  in  its  saloons,  the  furniture  and  lamps  ;  in  its  tri- 
clinia, the  fragments  of  the  last  feast ;  in  its  cubicula, 
the  perfumes  and  the  rouge  of  faded  beauty ;  and 
everywhere,  the  skeletons  of  those  who  once  moved 
the  springs  of  that  minute,  yet  gorgeous,  machine-  of 
luxury  and  life. 

"  The  cities  of  Herculaneum,  Pompeii,  and  Stabise 
were  buried  beneath  an  accumulation  of  ashes  and  sco- 
rise  to  a  depth  of  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty 
feet.  No  traces  have  been  perceived  of  lava  currents, 
or  of  melted  matter  ;  showers  of  sand,  cinders,  and 
scoriaB,  with  loose  fragments  of  rocks,  were  the  agents 
of  desolation.  The  various  utensils  and  works  of  art, 
which  may  be  observed  in  the  lamps,  vases,  beads, 
and  instruments  in  the  British  Museum,  exhibit  no 
appearance  of  having  suffered  by  the  action  of  fire. 
Even  the  delicate  papyri  appear  to  have  sustained 
more  injury  from  the  effects  of  moisture,  and  exposure 
to  the  air,  than  from  heat ;  for  they  contain  matter 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  255 

soluble  in  naphtha,  and  are,  in  fact,  peat,  in  which  bitu- 
menization  has  commenced.  In  Pompeii,  the  sand  and 
stones  are  loose  and  unconsolidated ;  but  in  Hercula- 
neum,  the  houses  and  works  of  art  are  imbedded  in 
solid  tuff,  which  must  have  originated  either  from  a 
torrent  of  mud,  or  from  ashes  moistened  by  water. 
Hence,  statues  are  found  unchanged,  although  sur- 
rounded by  hard  tuff,  bearing  the  impressions  of  the 
minutest  lines. 

"  The  beams  of  the  houses  have  undergone  but  little 
alteration,  except  that  they  are  invested  with  a  black 
crust.  Linen  and  fishing-nets,  loaves  of  bread  with 
the  impress  of  the  baker's  name,  even  fruits,  as  wal- 
nuts, almonds,  and  chestnuts,  are  still  distinctly  recog- 
nizable. The  remarkable  preservation,  for  nearly  two 
thousand  years,  of  whole  cities,  with  their  houses,  fur- 
niture, and  even  the  most  perishable  substances,  be- 
neath beds  of  volcanic  rocks,  may  be  compared  to 
those  geological  changes,  by  which  the  forests  of  an 
earlier  world,  and  the  remains  of  the  colossal  dragon- 
forms  which  inhabited  the  ancient  land  and  waters, 
have  been  perpetuated." 

Various  other  countries  exhibit  examples  similar  to 
those  we  have  described.  Thus,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan,  in  Palestine,  especially  around  Lake  Tiberias, 
and  extending  as  far  northwest  as  Safed,  volcanic 
rocks  are  found.  The  region  occupied  by  the  Dead 
Sea  has  doubtless  been  the  seat  of  volcanic  action,  at 
some  former,  though  distant,  period.  The  evidences 
of  this  are  found  in  the  fact,  that  the  lake  is  highly 
charged  with  saline  matter;  that  it  produces  vast  quan- 
tities of  bitumen ;  that  cliffs  of  rock-salt  and  masses 


256  GEOLOGICAL   MUTATIONS. 

of  sulphur  are  found  upon  its  margin;  and  that  its  sur- 
face is  depressed  more  than  five  hundred  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  And  it  has  been 
usually  supposed,  that  the  five  ancient  cities,  Sodom, 
Gomorrah,  Admah,  Zeboiim,  and  Zoar,  which  undoubt- 
edly occupied  what  is  now  the  southern  part  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  were  destroyed  by  a  volcanic  eruption  ;  but 
this  theory  is  now  rejected  by  the  best  geologists. 

Mount  Ararat,  in  Armenia,  is  also  said  to  be  an  ex- 
tinct volcano.  To  the  same  class,  likewise,  belong 
many  of  the  lofty  peaks  of  the  Andes  and  the  Cordil- 
leras, and  the  region  between  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  size  of  these  extinct  volcanoes,  and  the  extent 
of  their  craters,  are  often  immense.  In  the  middle 
and  southern  parts  of  France,  they  cover  several 
thousand  square  miles.  Between  Naples  and  Cuma, 
in  the  space  of  two  hundred  miles,  there  are  sixty  slum- 
bering craters,  some  of  them  larger  than  that  of  Vesu- 
vius. The  city  of  Cuma  has  stood  three  thousand 
years  in  a  crater -of  one  of  these  volcanoes.  "Vesuvius 
and  the  Peak  of  TenerifFe  both  stand  in  the  midst  of 
craters  of  ancient  volcanoes  ;  the  latter  of  which  is  one 
hundred  and  eight  square  miles  in  extent.  Humboldt 
says,  that  all  the  mountainous  region  of  Quito,  em- 
bracing six  thousand  three  hundred  square  miles,  may 
be  considered  as  an  immense  volcano,  which  occasion- 
ally finds  vent  through  some  one  of  the  elevated  peaks 
in  that  region,  and  which  formerly  must  have  been 
active  to  have  produced  the  results  which  remain. 
The  great  volcano  of  Kirauea  is  said  also  to  be  sur- 
rounded by  two  circular  walls,  one  fifteen  and  the 


IGNEOUS    AGENCIES.  257 

other  twenty  miles  in  circuit,  and  which  must  be  con- 
sidered as  the  boundaries  of  ancient  craters. 

Some  geologists  have  inferred  from  these  facts,  that 
ancient  volcanoes,  now  extinct,  must  have  exerted  a 
more  powerful  agency  than  existing  ones  ;  but  Mr. 
Lyell  conceives  this  view  to  be  incorrect,  and  appeals 
to  the  immense  amount  of  matter  thrown  out  by  the 
eruption  of  Skaptar  Jokul,  in  1783,  which  he  thinks 
must  have  equalled  any  of  those  in  the  olden  time. 


EARTHQUAKES. 

CLOSELY  connected  with  the  subject  of  volcanoes  is 
that  of  earthquakes.  These  are  almost  always  expe- 
rienced before  an  eruption,  and  cease  to  be  felt  Avhen 
the  lava  has  found  some  means  of  bursting  forth. 
One  striking  peculiarity  of  earthquakes  is  the  extent  of 
country  which  is  often  affected  by  them.  The  shock 
of  the  earthquake  of  Chili,  in  1822,  was  felt  simulta- 
neously throughout  a  space  of  twelve  hundred  miles, 
from  north  to  south.  An  earthquake,  which  occurred 
lately  at  ditch,  was  felt  at  Ahmeclabad,  and  also 
slightly  at  Poonah,  which  is  four  hundred  miles  farther. 
And  during  one  of  the  earthquakes  in  Calabria,  toward 
the  end  of  the  last  century,  the  surface  over  which  the 
shocks  acted  so  forcibly  as  to  excite  terror  and  alarm 
amounted  to  five  hundred  square  miles.  The  agita- 
tions also  affect  the  sea,  as  well  as  the  land.  The  town 
of  Sorcino  was  destroyed  by  the  waves  of  the  ocean, 
during  an  earthquake  in  1780.  During  the  earthquake 
17 


2DS  GEOLOGICAL    MUTATIONS. 

at  Lisbon,  the  waves  mounted  to  a  greater  height 
than  they  had  ever  been  known  to  do  in  the  most 
violent  storms ;  and  at  Cadiz,  the  swell  rose  eighty 
feet,  breaking  down  the  mole  which  joins  the  town 
to  the  continent.  The  effect  of  the  shocks  on  vessels 
at  sea  has  been  described  as  similar  to  the  concus- 
sion that  is  felt  when  a  ship  strikes  violently  upon  a 
sandbank. 

Of  the  powerful  influence  of  earthquakes  in  modify- 
ing the  surface  of  the  land  perhaps  as  striking  an  in- 
stance as  can  be  adduced  is  that  which  occurred  on 
the  coast  of  Chili,  in  1822,  and  to  which  we  have 
already  alluded.  When  the  district  around  Valparaiso 
was  examined,  after  the  shock,  it  was  found  that  the 
whole  line  of  coast,  for  the  distance  of  more  than  a 
hundred  miles,  was  raised  nearly  four  feet  above  its 
former  level ;  and  the  muscles,  oysters,  and  other 
shell-fish,  which  were  thus  exposed,  were  all  dead,  and 
exhaling  most  offensive  effluvia.  The  rise  of  the  inland 
country  was  even  greater  than  that  of  the  sea-coast. 
The  area  thus  convulsed  and  permanently  altered  is 
believed  to  have  extended  to  a  hundred  thousand  square 
miles. 

In  1812,  a  violent  earthquake  occurred  in  Caraccas. 
The  surface  undulated  like  a  boiling  liquid  ;  terrific 
sounds  were  heard  under  ground ;  and  the  whole  city, 
with  its  splendid  churches,  was  in  an  instant  a  heap 
of  ruins,  under  which  ten  thousand  of  the  inhabit- 
ants were  buried.  Enormous  rocks  were  detached 
from  the  mountains,  and  Silla  lost  about  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  of  its  height,  by  subsidence.  In 
1797,  the  district  around  the  volcano  of  Tunguragua, 


IGNEOUS    AGENCIES.  259 

in  Quito,  for  forty  leagues  from  north  to  south,  expe- 
rienced an  undulating  movement  which  lasted  four 
minutes.  Every  town  was  levelled  to  the  ground ; 
and  Riobamba,  Quero,  and  other  places,  were  buried 
under  masses  detached  from  the  mountains.  At  the 
foot  of  Tunguragua  the  earth  was  rent  open,  and 
streams  of  water  and  fetid  mud  poured  out,  overflow- 
ing and  wasting  every  thing.  In  valleys  one  thousand 
feet  broad,  the  water  of  these  floods  reached  to  the 
height  of  six  hundred  feet,  barring  up  the  course  of 
the  river,  and  forming  immense  lakes.  The  surface 
of  the  district  thus  affected  was  entirely  changed. 

The  earthquakes  which  occurred  in  Calabria  pre- 
sent a  frightful  picture  of  the  desolating  power  of  this 
tremendous  agent.  The  shocks  began  in  February, 
1783,  and  lasted  for  nearly  four  years.  The  ground 
was  rent  and  cracked  in  all  directions.  Chasms  were 
formed  a  mile  in  length,  and  hundreds  of  feet  deep. 
Cities  and  villages  were  overthrown,  and  many  houses, 
and  even  streets,  were  altogether  ingulfed.  Trees, 
supported  by  their  trunks,  sometimes  bent  during  the 
shocks  to  the  earth,  and  touched  it  with  their  tops. 
The  quay  at  Messina  was  sunk  down  below  the  level  of 
the  sea ;  and  at  Terranuova,  a  stone  well  was  driven 
upward  out  of  the  earth,  so  as  to  form  a  tower,  eight 
or  nine  feet  in  height.  Many  land-slips  also  occurred. 
In  other  words,  immense  portions  of  land,  sometimes 
forming  the  sides  of  mountains,  were  separated  from 
the  parent  mass,  and  precipitated  into  the  valleys,  ob- 
structing the  river-courses,  and  causing  lakes  and 
floods.  Two  portions  of  land  of  this  kind,  about  a 
mile  long,  and  half  a  mile  broad,  were  carried  for  a 


260  GEOLOGICAL    MUTATIONS. 

mile  down  a  valley  ;  and  a  thatched  cottage,  together 
with  large  olive  and  mulberry  trees,  most  of  which  re- 
mained erect,  were  carried  uninjured  to  this  extraordi- 
nary distance. 

The  number  of  persons  who  perished  during  the 
earthquakes  is  reckoned  at  forty  thousand  ;  and  twenty 
thousand  more  died  of  epidemics  caused  by  insuffi- 
cient nourishment,  and  by  malaria  arising  from  the 
new  stagnant  lakes  and  pools.  Many  of  the  victims 
who  were  buried  in  the  ruins  of  the  houses  might  have 
been  rescued,  but  no  person  could  be  procured  to  re- 
move the  superincumbent  rubbish.  The  peasantry 
either  had  fled,  or  had  enough  to  do  with  their  own 
misfortunes  ;  and  neither  entreaties  nor  rewards  could 
induce  them  to  lend  the  necessary  aid.  At  Terranuo- 
*  va,  four  monks,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  a  vaulted 
sacristy,  the  arch  of  which  continued  to  support  an 
immense  pile  of  ruins,  made  their  cries  heard  for  the 
space  of  four  days.  One  only  of  the  brethren  of 
the  whole  convent  was  saved,  but,  unassisted,  he  could 
lend  them  no  aid.  He  heard  their  voices  die  away 
gradually ;  and  when  afterward  their  four  corpses 
were  disinterred,  they  were  found  clasped  in  each 
other's  arms. 

Professor  Hitchcock  presents  us  with  the  following 
cases  of  cities  and  places,  wholly  or  in  part  deluged 
by  the  ocean,  in  consequence  of  earthquakes.  In 
the  year  876,  Mount  Acraces  is  said  to  have  fallen 
into  the  sea;  in  541,  Pompeiopolis  was  half  swal- 
lowed up ;  in  1692,  a  part  of  Port  Royal  in  the 
West  Indies  was  sunk ;  in  1755,  a  part  of  Lisbon  ;  in 
1812,  a  part  of  Caraccas.  About  the  same  time, 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  261 

numerous  earthquakes  agitated  the  valley  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, for  an  extent  of  three  hundred  miles,  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Ohio  to  that  of  the  St.  Francis,  where- 
by numerous  tracts  were  sunk  down  and  others  raised, 
lakes  and  islands  were  formed,  and  the  bed  of  the 
Mississippi  was  exceedingly  altered.  In  1819,  the  bed 
of  the  Indus,  at  its  mouth,  was  sunk  eighteen  feet,  and 
the  village  and  port  of  Sindree  submerged.  At  the 
same  time,  a  tract  of  the  delta  of  the  Indus,  fifty  miles 
long  and  sixteen  broad,  was  elevated  about  ten  feet. 
In  Caraccas,  in  1790,  a  forest  was  sunk,  over  a  space 
of  eight  hundred  yards  in  diameter,  to  the  depth  of 
eighty  or  one  hundred  yards. 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Parker  has  described  a  remarkable  sub- 
sidence, twenty  miles  in  length,  and  a  mile  in  width, 
just  above  the  falls  in  Columbia  River,  and  which  has 
been  before  adverted  to.  Through  this  whole  distance, 
the  trees  are  standing  in  the  bottom  of  the  stream,  at 
an  average  depth  of  twenty  feet ;  only  that  part  of 
them  above  high-water  mark  being  broken  off.  He 
could  discover  no  evidence  that  this  tract  had  separated 
from  the  bank  of  the  river ;  but  the  whole  region  ap- 
pears to  be  one  of  extinct  volcanoes,  and  the  river 
passes  through  hills  and  walls  of  basalt,  and  most 
probably  this  is  a  case  of  subsidence  from  an  earth- 
quake. The  banks  are  too  high  and  rocky  to  admit 
of  the  explanation,  that  a  lake  has  been  formed  by  the 
river  cutting  through  its  levee,  and  overflowing  the  ad- 
jacent low  ground,  by  which  means,  along  the  Missis- 
sippi, a  lake  with  trees  standing  in  it  is  sometimes 
produced. 


262  GEOLOGICAL    MUTATIONS. 


ELEVATIONS  AND  DEPRESSIONS   WITHOUT  EARTHQUAKES. 

As  earthquakes  sometimes  occur  without  immediate 
relation  to  volcanoes,  so  there  are  instances  where 
large  tracts  of  land  have  been  elevated  or  depressed, 
by  a  gradual  progressive  movement,  not  occasioned 
directly  by  either  of  these  causes,  or  at  least  without 
any  apparent  evidence  of  their  action,  exhibited  in  the 
usual  manner  at  the  surface.  For  instance,  it  has 
been  clearly  ascertained  that  a  great  part  of  the  coast 
of  Sweden,  upon  the  Baltic  and  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia, 
is  slowly  but  continually  rising;  and  the  same  phe- 
nomenon has  been  observed  upon  the  western  coast  of 
Sweden,  particularly  near  Uddevalla,  and  the  neigh- 
bouring coast.  Into  the  proofs  of  this  rise  our  limits 
do  not  permit  us  to  enter;  but  they  are  clear  be- 
yond a  doubt.  This  rising  of  land  in  Scandinavia, 
together  with  depressions  which  are  known  to  occur 
in  Greenland  and  other  places,  is  not  improbably  con- 
nected with  subterranean  volcanic  agency,  although 
the  country  has  been  from  time  immemorial  free  from 
volcanoes  and  violent  earthquakes. 


CAUSES  OF  VOLCANOES  AND  EARTHQUAKES. 

THIS  has  been  a  fruitful  subject  of  dispute  among 
geologists;  but  as  an  investigation  of  all  that  has  been 
advanced  on  the  subject  would  lead  us  far  beyond  our 


IGNEOUS    AGENCIES.  263 

present  limits,  we  shall  merely  take  a  cursory  glance 
at  the  more  important  theories. 

The  common  cause  of  volcanoes  and  earthquakes 
is  on  all  hands  admitted  to  be  connected  with  the  pas- 
sage of  heated  matter,  which  we  find  ejected  from  the 
interior  to  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  question, 
then,  is,  Where  does  this  heat  come  from  ?  It  is 
the  opinion  of  some  very  profound  geologists,  that  the 
earth  was  originally  in  a  state  of  igneous  fusion,  and 
that,  as  this  heated  mass  began  gradually  to  cool,  an 
exterior  crust  was  formed,  first  very  thin,  and  after- 
ward increasing,  by  degrees,  until  it  attained  its  present 
thickness,  which  they  calculate  as  amounting  to  sixty 
miles.  During  this  process  of  gradual  refrigeration, 
some  portions  of  the  crust  cooled  more  rapidly  than 
others  ;  and  the  pressure  on  the  interior  igneous  mass 
being  unequal,  the  heated  matter,  or  lava,  burst  through 
the  thinner  parts,  and  caused  high  peaked  mountains, 
such  as  we  at  present  see  in  the  moon.  The  same 
cause,  they  allege,  produces  volcanoes  still.  Accor- 
ding to  this  theory,  we  live  upon  a  thin  crust,  inclos- 
ing matter  in  a  state  of  intense  heat,  which  in  par- 
ticular districts  agitates  the  earth  in  its  pressure  to 
escape,  thus  causing  earthquakes ;  or  occasionally 
bursting  forth  and  producing  volcanoes.  The  argu- 
ments adduced  for  this  doctrine  are  plausible.  The 
first  is  the  form  of  the  earth,  —  that  of  a  spheroid  of 
rotation,  —  being  just  that  form  which  an  igneous  liquid 
mass  would  assume,  if  thrown  into  an  orbit  with  a 
motion  similar  to  that  of  the  earth.  Again,  they  ap- 
peal to  the  fact,  that  it  is  fourd,  by  experiments  in 
mines,  that  the  heat  increases  with  the  depth,  and  that 


2b4  GEOLOGICAL    MUTATIONS. 

hot-springs  and  mineral  waters  are  found  in  all  coun- 
tries. They  likewise  argue,  that  the  peculiar  appear- 
ance of  lavas,  all  over  the  world,  indicates  that  they 
proceed  from  a  common  source.  And  lastly,  they 
contend,  that  on  no  other  hypothesis  can  we  account 
for  the  vigorous  growth  of  sigillaria,  arborescent  ferns, 
and  other  plants  found  fossil  in  northern  regions, — 
plants  which  could  have  been  produced  only  under 
circumstances  of  high  temperature  and  moisture, — 
meaning,  of  course,  that  the  heat  which  assisted  the 
growth  of  this  luxuriant  flora  must  have  proceeded, 
not  from  above,  but  from  beneath  the  soil. 

This  doctrine,  nevertheless,  is  opposed  by  Mr.  Ly- 
ell.  The  spheroidal  figure  of  the  earth,  he  says,  may 
have  been  caused  by  the  gradual  operation  of  the 
centrifugal  force,  acting  on  the  materials  brought  suc- 
cessively within  its  action  by  aqueous  aud  igneous 
causes.  And  besides,  he  adds,  it  is  a  gratuitous  sup- 
position, that  the  original  figure  of  our  planet  was 
strictly  spherical.  He  maintains,  moreover,  that,  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  which  regulate  the  circulation  of 
heat  through  fluid  bodies,  the  crust  of  the  earth,  in- 
stead of  increasing  in  thickness,  would  be  altogether 
melted.  And  finally,  he  attempts  to  account  satisfac- 
torily, by  changes  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  for 
the  growth  of  the  gigantic  plants  found  in  cold  regions. 

Mr.  Lyell  refers  the  heat  of  the  interior  to  chemical 
changes  constantly  going  on  in  the  earth's  crust ; 
forming  particular  combinations  which  evolve  heat  and 
electricity,  and  which  again,  in  their  turn,  become 
sources  of  new  chemical  changes.  He  suggests,  that 
subterranean  electric  currents  may  exert  a  slow  de- 


IGNEOUS   AGENCIES.  265 

composing  power,  like  that  of  the  voltaic  pile,  and 
thus  become  a  constant  source  of  chemical  action, 
and  consequently  of  volcanic  heat ;  that  the  metals  of 
the  earth  and  alkalies  may  exist  in  an  unoxidized  state 
in  the  subterranean  regions,  so  that  the  occasional 
contact  of  water  with  those  metals  must  produce  in- 
tense heat ;  that  the  hydrogen  evolved  during  the  pro- 
cess of  saturation  may,  on  coming  afterward  in  con- 
tact with  the  heated  metallic  oxides,  reduce  them 
again  to  metals ;  and  that  this  circle  of  action  may 
be  one  of  the  principal  means  by  which  internal  heat, 
and  the  stability  of  the  volcanic  energy,  are  pre- 
served. 

The  sudden  fracture  of  solid  strata,  by  any  of  the 
causes  mentioned,  would  produce  a  vibratory  jar, 
which,  being  propagated  in  undulations  through  a 
mass  of  rock  several  thousand  feet  thick,  (for  the  crust 
of  the  earth  is  extremely  elastic,)  would  give  rise  to 
superficial  waves,  and  so  cause  earthquakes.  Or,  as 
Michell  supposes,  large  districts  may  rest  on  fluid  lava, 
which,  when  disturbed,  will  produce  a  similar  undula- 
tory  motion  ;  and  when  this  pent-up  heated  matter 
finds  a  means  of  egress,  it  will  rush  out,  for  days  or 
weeks,  through  the  orifice,  with  an  explosive  power, 
accompanied  by  smoke  and  flame,  and  the  other  pe- 
culiarities of  volcanic  eruptions.  The  rocks  shattered 
by  such  subterranean  convulsions  may  assume  and  re- 
tain an  arched  form  ;  or  the  gases  may  drive  before 
them  masses  of  liquid  lava,  which  may  thus  be  injected 
into  newly  opened  fissures.  In  either  case,  the  coun- 
try above  may  remain  permanently  elevated.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  in  some  such  way  the  mighty 


x5bb  GEOLOGICAL    MUTATIONS. 

Andes  have  been  upheaved  from  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean,  and,  indeed,  most  of  the  present  dry  land  on  the 
face  of  the  globe ;  for  geological  phenomena  plainly 
indicate  that  each  region  of  the  earth  has  at  one  time 
or  other  been  a  great  theatre  of  subterranean  convul- 


CHANGE  OF  CLIMATES  UPON  THE  GLOBE. 

THIS  is  a  highly  interesting  topic  in  geology,  and  it 
is  one  of  the  most  difficult  to  explain.  It  is  a  fact  now 
fully  admitted,  that  the  climate  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere was,  at  a  former  period  of  the  earth's  history, 
much  hotter  than  it  is  at  present.  The  proofs  of  this 
are  abundant.  Shells  and  corals,  discovered  fossil  in 
the  secondary  rocks,  are  found  intimately  connected, 
by  generic  affinity,  with  species  now  living  in  warmer 
latitudes.  Turtles,  tortoises,  and  lizards  appear  in 
great  abundance  in  European  formations  ;  and  plants 
have  been  found  in  situations  where  they  could  not 
possibly  have  grown  under  the  present  temperature. 
Thus,  in  the  superficial  deposits  of  sand,  gravel,  and 
loam,  strewn  over  all  parts  of  Europe,  remains  of 
extinct  mammalia  are  discovered,  among  which  are 
those  of  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  bear, 
hyena,  lion,  tiger,  and  others,  consisting  in  a  great 
measure  of  species  now  confined  to  warmer  regions. 

In  the  elevated  land  of  Europe,  the  rocks  called 
secondary  contain  assemblages  of  organized  fossils,  all 
of  unknown  species,  and  many  of  them  referable  to 


CHANGE  OF  CLIMATES  UPON  THE  GLOBE.   267 

genera  now  abundant  between  the  tropics.  Among 
these,  as  we  have  seen,  are  gigantic  reptiles,  some  of 
them  herbivorous,  others  carnivorous,  far  exceeding  in 
size  any  now  known,  even  in  the  torrid  zone.  The 
genera  are  for  the  most  part  extinct ;  but  some  of  them, 
as  the  crocodile  and  monitor,  still  have  representatives 
in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  earth.  Coral  reefs  were  ev- 
idently numerous  in  the  seas  of  the  same  periods,  and 
composed  of  species  belonging  to  genera  now  character- 
istic of  a  tropical  climate.  In  the  ancient  coal-deposits 
the  proofs  are  still  more  striking,  for  there  we  find 
equiseta  upward  of  ten  feet  in  height,  arborescent  ferns 
fifty  feet  high,  and  lycopodiacese  from  sixty  to  seventy 
feet;  and  these  not  only  in  Europe,  but  in  North 
America  and  Greenland.  These,  together  with  the 
corals  and  chambered  univalves  which  have  been  found 
at  Melville  Island  and  other  high  latitudes,  prove,  that, 
during  the  carboniferous  period,  there  was  an  elevated 
temperature,  even  in  regions  bordering  on  the  Arctic 
Circle.  The  approximation  to  a  climate  similar  to  that 
now  prevalent  in  these  latitudes  does  not  commence  till 
the  era  of  the  tertiary  formations,  which,  it  will  be 
recollected,  are  the  latest  formed  of  the  stratified  rocks. 
To  account  for  the  change  of  climate  thus  indicated, 
some  have  argued  for  a  derangement  in  the  position  of 
the  earth's  axis  of  rotation  ;  but  astronomers  satisfacto- 
rily prove  to  us  that  this  is  impossible.  Another  theory 
we  have  already  noticed,  in  treating  of  volcanoes, 
namely,  the  former  thinness  of  the  earth's  crust,  and 
the  consequently  greater  amount  of  heat  transmitted 
to  the  surface.  Another  theory  is,  that  the  high  tem- 
perature in  northern  regions  was  the  result  of  an  ar- 


XW  GEOLOGICAL  .MUTATIONS. 

rangement  of  the  land  and  sea,  different  from,  and, 
indeed,  the  reverse  of,  what  now  appears  on  the  face 
of  the  globe. 

Wherever  there  are  large  tracts  of  land,  with  moun- 
tainous districts  rising  into  the  colder  regions  of  the 
atmosphere,  there  will  ice  and  snow  be  found  to  pre- 
vail and  accumulate.  But  the  ocean  has  a  tendency 
everywhere  to  preserve  a  mean  temperature,  which  it 
communicates  to  the  adjoining  land,  so  that  it  tempers 
the  climate,  moderating  alike  an  excess  of  heat  or  cold. 
Accordingly,  we  find  that  the"  climate  of  islands  is  much 
more  equable  than  that  of  continents.  Their  summers 
may  be  more  cool,  but  their  winters  are  warmer.  If, 
therefore,  the  present  relative  positions  of  land  and 
water  were  reversed,  we  may  suppose,  that,  in  the 
islands,  which  would  then  occupy  the  polar  regions, 
the  temperature  might  be  somewhat  raised  by  the  pre- 
vailing mean  temperature  of  the  ocean,  —  by  currents 
flowing  from  the  tropical  regions,  —  and  by  other  fa- 
vorable circumstances,  —  so  as,  possibly,  to  render 
them  fit  for  the  support  both  of  animals  and  plants 
which  could  not  exist  in  a  climate  such  as  is  found  at 
present  in  those  quarters  of  the  world. 

That  such  a  distribution  of  land  and  sea  has  occur- 
red is  not  only  possible,  but  highly  probable  ;  and  the 
agents  at  present  operating  a  change  on  the  earth's 
surface  are  quite  competent  to  produce  it  again. 
"  The  imagination  is  apt  to  take  alarm,"  says  Mr. 
Lyell,  whose  theory  is  here  presented,  "  when  called 
upon  to  admit  the  formation  of  such  irregularities  on 
the  crust  of  the  earth,  after  it  had  once  become  the 
habitation  of  living  creatures.  But  if  time  be  allowed, 


CHANGE  OF  CLIMATES  UPON  THE  GLOBE.    269 

the  operation  need  not  subvert  the  ordinary  repose  of 
nature ;  and  the  result  is,  in  a  general  view,  insignifi- 
cant, if  we  consider  how  slightly  the  highest  mountain- 
chains  cause  our  globe  to  differ  from  a  perfect  sphere. 
Chimborazo,  though  it  rises  to  more  than  twenty-one 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  would  be  represented  on 
a  globe,  six  feet  in  diameter,  by  a  grain  of  sand,  less 
than  one  twentieth  of  an  inch  in  thickness." 

It  is  claimed,  that  the  appearance  of  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  stratified  rocks  supports  the  theory  which  has 
been  stated ;  but  we  shall  only  allude  to  the  more  re- 
cent series, —  the  tertiary.  In  this  formation,  we  find 
a  gradual  increase  of  animals  and  plants  fitted  to  our 
present  climates,  in  proportion  as  the  strata  which  we 
examine  are  more  modern  ;  and  it  is  an  ascertained 
fact,  that,  during  all  these  successive  tertiary  periods, 
there  has  been  a  great  increase  of  land  in  Europe- 
an latitudes.  In  fact,  two  thirds  of  the  present  lands 
in  Europe  have  emerged  since  the  deposition  of  the 
earliest  of  these  tertiary  groups.  Large  portions  of 
Sweden,  Finland,  Lapland,  Turkey,  France,  and  Aus- 
tria, the  greater  part  of  Prussia  and  Poland,  the  whole 
of  Denmark,  almost  the  whole  of  Russia,  with  part  of 
England,  have  been  elevated  from  beneath  the  ocean, 
during  the  period  in  question.  The  proofs  of  submerg- 
ence are  unequivocal,  for  the  area  described  is  now 
covered  by  deposits  containing  the  fossil  remains  of 
animals  which  could  only  have  lived  under  water. 
The  species,  moreover,  of  the  marine  testacea  found 
in  the  oldest  of  these  formations  cannot  be  deemed 
very  remote,  geologically  speaking ;  for  a  proportion 
of  more  than  three  in  a  hundred  of  the  fossils  has 


270  .  GEOLOGICAL    MUTATIONS. 

been  identified  with  species  now  living.  The  eleva- 
tion, too,  of  the  extensive  districts  mentioned  was 
by  no  means  sudden.  Evidence  has  been  obtained 
which  renders  it  probable  that  there  have  been  at 
least  twelve  different  periods  of  elevation,  affecting 
the  strata  of  Europe. 

We  shall  not  undertake  to  decide  between  the  sev- 
eral theories  adopted  to  explain  the  obvious  fact  of  a 
change  of  the  climates  of  the  earth ;  and  need  only 
remark,  that  a  combination  of  these  systems  may,  per- 
haps, furnish  us  with  the  true  hypothesis. 


GENERAL  VIEW. 


LET  us  now  briefly  review  the  ground  over  which 
we  have  passed',  and  consider  the  results  at  which  we 
have  arrived.  Instead  of  regarding  this  earth  as 
brought  suddenly  into  existence  some  six  thousand 
years  ago,  by  one  creative  act  of  God,  we  must  carry 
the  mind  back  into  the  remote  depths  of  eternity,  and 
suppose,  that,  in  the  formation  of  our  earth,  the  same 
process  was  adopted  as  that  which  the  astronomer 
now  sees  going  on  in  the  boundless  regions  of  space. 
Notwithstanding  Mr.  LyelPs  theory,  recited  in  a  pre- 
vious chapter,  we  incline  to  that  hypothesis  which 
supposes  that  the  sun  was  once  the  nucleus  or  centre 
of  a  nebulous  mass,  revolving  on  its  axis  ;  that  this 
became  condensed,  and  the  planets  were  successively 
thrown  off  from  the  central  body.  At  first,  we  sup- 
pose the  earth  to  have  been  in  a  gaseous  state,  similar 
to  the  comets.  By  degrees,  its  heat  was  dispersed  and 
radiated  into  space ;  in  consequence  of  which,  the 
particles  became  condensed,  yet  still  in  a  state  of  fu- 
sion. The  process  of  cooling  went  on,  until  the  exter- 
nal crust  of  the  globe  became  hardened  into  the  solid 
materials  of  which  we  see  it  now  composed,  yet, 


272  GENERAL    VIEW. 

perhaps,  leaving  the  central  mass  in  a  state  of  incan- 
descence. 

At  what  period  this  process  began,  or  how  long  a 
time  has  elapsed  since  the  work  was  thus  far  com- 
pleted, we  have  not  the  means  of  knowing ;  but  we 
have  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  myriads  of  years 
ago,  and  that  the  imagination  of  man  is  incompetent  to 
measure  the  ages  which  have  rolled  away  since  our 
earth  began  its  career  as  a  planetary  body.  From 
the  time  that  the  earth  had  thus  assumed  its  present 
form,  we  suppose  that  the  great  agencies  which  we 
now  see  at  work  in  changing  the  surface  of  the  earth 
have  been  in  operation,  and  that  these  have  been  the 
instruments  by  which  a  series  of  revolutions  and  mu- 
tations have  been  effected. 

The  precise  order  of  these  changes  we  cannot  trace, 
yet  their  general  character  and  tendency  we  are  at  no 
loss  to  discover.  At  first,  in  the  process  of  cooling, 
the  crust  of  the  globe  was,  perhaps,  broken  and  torn, 
thus  presenting  the  rugged  aspect  which  the  telescope 
now  unfolds  to  view  in  the  moon.  The  pent-up  fires 
within  would  seek  vent,  the  volcanoes  would  disgorge 
their  contents,  and  the  earthquake  would  shake  and 
dislocate  the  land  and  the  sea.  The  rain  and  the 
tempest  now  began  their  work  ;  particles  of  earth  were 
disengaged  from  the  mountains,  and  borne  by  the  floods 
to  the  valleys  ;  and  a  soil  was  formed  for  vegetation. 
But,  in  a  world  which  had  sprung  from  a  molten  mass 
of  matter,  there  was  no  seed,  —  no  principle  of  vege- 
table or  animal  life.  A  creative  act  of  God  was  now 
necessary  to  commence  the  organic  kingdoms.  That 
act  was  put  forth  ;  seeds  were  created  and  cast  into 


GENERAL   VIEW.  273 

the  soil  which  had  been  preparing  for  them.  These 
sprang  up  at  the  bidding  of  the  Almighty.  At  first, 
they  were  the  fuel  and  alga,  — the  rank  weeds  which 
grow  on  the  margin  of  the  sea.  These  flourish  and 
decay,  and  their  successive  generations  contribute  to 
form  a  rich  mould  which  shall  give  sustenance  to 
higher  forms  of  vegetation  yet  to  be  created. 

At  an  early  period,  and  perhaps  immediately  after 
the  commencement  of  vegetable  life,  the  lowest  forms 
of  animal  existence  were  brought  into  being.  The  zo- 
ophytes were  seen  to  swarm  in  the  waters,  and  shell- 
fish begr.i  to  abound  ;  crustaceous  animals  were  mul- 
tiplied ;  myriads  of  trilobites  sported  in  the  sea  ;  fishes 
of  the  sauroid  and  shark  form  succeeded  ;  —  and  while 
these  steps  of  creation  were  advancing  in  the  waters, 
the  land  began  to  put  forth  its  blossoming  flowers. 
Such  is  the  Silurian  or  Cambrian  Period. 

But  a  change  comes  over  the  scene.  Continents 
and  islands  sink  beneath  the  ocean,  and  new  conti- 
nents arise  from  the  bosom  of  the  deep.  The  old  cre- 
ations are  in  fact  swept  away.  A  new  earth  appears, 
and  new  beings  are  created  to  inhabit  it.  Fishes  of 
new  forms  are  seen  to  glide  in  the  waters  ;  scorpions, 
spiders,  and  various  insects  are  seen  upon  the  land  and 
the  sea.  The  fresh-waters  now  begin  to  teem  with 
shell-fish,  and  the  land  becomes  clothed  with  a  gigantic 
vegetation.  The  pine-tree  rises,  with  its  lofty  branches, 
into  the  air.  The  stately  palm  broods  in  forests  over 
hill  and  valley  ;  and  flowering  plants  and  shrubs  appear, 
in  diversified  forms  and  hues,  on  every  hand. 

At  this  age  of  the  world,  the  climate  differs  from  that 
of  the  present  period.  The  torrid  zone  seems  to 
18 


274  GENERAL   VIEW. 

overspread  the  earth ;  and  even  in  the  polar  regions, 
where  animal  and  vegetable  life  can  now  hardly  exist, 
the  tropical  plants  seem  to  luxuriate,  and  animals 
now  confined  to  the  torrid  regions  sport  in  the  tepid 
waters  around  the  poles.  This  was  the  Carboniferous 
Period ;  and  it  was  during  this  prolific  age  that  the 
mighty  masses  of  vegetable  matter  were  produced 
and  buried  in  the  earth,  to  constitute  those  inexhausti- 
ble beds  of  coal,  which  ages  after  were  to  contribute 
to  the  civilization  of  man,  to  drive  the  whirling  spin- 
dles of  the  factory,  to  work  the  sledge  of  the  iron- 
mill,  to  impel  the  steamboat  through  the  wave,  and 
urge  the  locomotive  on  its  track. 

Another  change  comes  over  the  scene.  A  new  dis- 
tribution of  land  and  water  is  made.  Myriads  of  or- 
ganized existences  become  extinct,  and  new  ones  suc- 
ceed. Reading  the  record  of  this  age,  as  written  upon 
the  enduring  leaves  of  red-sandstone,  we  see  that 
gigantic  frogs  and  birds  of  amazing  stature  now  dwell 
upon  the  earth.  The  ichthyosaurus,  the  plesiosaurus, 
and  other  strange  yet  stupendous  reptiles,  wonderfully 
combining  the  powers  of  distinct  genera,  dwell  in  the 
waters  or  along  their  margin,  and  at  the  same  time 
new  forms  of  vegetable  life  are  scattered  over  the 
landscape. 

Still  another  change  appears,  and  now  the  marsupial 
animals  are  seen  ;  the  crocodile,  the  gavial,  and  the 
tortoise  are  created.  New  fishes,  new  insects,  and 
new  animals  of  the  crustaceous  kind  are  discovered ; 
and  plants,  also,  of  new  forms,  spring  up  from  the  soil. 
This  is  the  Oolitic  Period. 

And  now  we  come  to  the  Wealden  Period,  the  age 


GENERAL    VIEW.  275 

of  the  iguanodon,  that  stupendous  reptile,  whose  very 
existence  had  never  been  imagined  until  a  recent  pe- 
riod, and  to  which  the  words  of  Milton  have  been 
fitly  applied :  — 

"  With  head  uplift  above  the  waves,  and  eyes 
That  sparkling  blazed,  his  other  parts  besides 
Borne  on  the  flood,  extended  Jong  and  large, 
Lay  floating  many  a  rood,  in  bulk  as  huge 
As  whom  the  fables  name  of  monstrous  size, 
Titanian,  or  earth-born,  that  warred  on  Jove, — 
Briareus,  or  Typhon,  whom  the  den 
By  ancient  Tarsus  held,  —  or  that  sea-beast 
Leviathan,  which  God  of  all  his  works 
Created  hugest  that  swim  the  ocean  stream." 

The  imagination,  in  turning  back  to  this  period, 
pictures  to  itself  this  mighty  reptile  rioting  in  the 
waters  where  the  solid  earth  of  the  British  islands  now 
stands,  and,  in  place  of  the  human  habitations,  the  ox, 
the  horse,  the  oak,  and  the  chestnut,  —  which  now  ap- 
pear in  the  scene, —  discovers  flying  reptiles  in  the 
air,  crocodiles  and  turtles  sporting  in  the  fens,  and  liz- 
ards and  fishes,  now  blotted  out  of  existence,  making 
the  waters  boil  with  their  gambols. 

Another  change  takes  place,  and  the  Cretaceous  Pe- 
riod appears.  Again  new  forms  of  organized  exist- 
ence occupy  the  earth.  The  mososaurus  and  other 
reptiles  are  found.  New  insects,  fishes,  and  Crustacea 
are  seen,  with  many  that  have  before  existed.  The 
vegetable  world  displays  also  some  new  plants,  amid 
varieties  that  have  belonged  to  other  ages. 

We  now  come  to  the  Tertiary  Period,  which  is  far 
more  prolific  in  organic  remains  than  those  that  have 
gone  before.  A  multitude  of  new  animals  and  plants 


276  GENERAL   VIE.W. 

appear  to  have  entered  upon  their  career.  Many  spe- 
cies that  are  now  extinct  —  such  as  the  palseotherium, 
lophiodon,  and  dinotherium  —  are  found,  with  a  multi- 
tude of  animals  still  in  existence.  The  bones  of 
creatures  now  unknown  occur  confusedly  mixed  with 
those  of  the  bat,  wolf,  fox,  raccoon,  squirrel,  owl, 
whale,  elephant,  ox,  deer,  &c.  Many  extinct  species 
of  genera  still  existing  are  discovered.  Multitudes  of 
extinct  shell-fish  are  found  with  others  that  still  remain, 
and,  amid  the  relics  of  vegetable  races  which  have 
vanished  from  the  earth,  we  find  the  fossil  remains  of 
poplars,  willows,  sycamores,  and  elms.  Thus,  the  old 
and  the  new,  —  the  past  and  the  present,—  the  races 
that  are  annihilated,  and  the  races  that  remain,  —  are 
found  huddled  together  in  one  common  tomb,  formed 
in  that  age  of  the  earth  to  which  we  give  the  title  of 
the  Tertiary  Period. 

But  as  yet  no  traces  of  man  appear.  Hither- 
to the  world  has  performed  its  revolutions,  and 
ages  have  rolled  away  ;  change  has  followed  change  ; 
myriads  of  animals  have  lived  and  perished  ;  the 
seasons  have  come  and  gone  ;  the  elements  have  per- 
formed their  work,  and  all  unwitnessed  by  human  be- 
ings. Geology  tells  us  of  the  volcano  and  the  earth- 
quake ;  of  the  iguanodon  and  the  plesiosaurtfs ;  of 
ages  that  have  fled,  and  races  that  have  perished ;  —  it 
opens  a  new  and  wonderful  volume  of  history,  and 
reveals  events  which  would  otherwise  have  slept  in 
oblivion  for  ever ;  but  it  tells  us  nothing  of  our  own 
species.  Man's  history  is  recent;  his  existence,  as 
compared  with  the  age  of  the  earth,  is  as  an  hand- 
breadth.  We  do  not  find  his  bones  imbedded  in  the 


GENERAL    VIEW.  277 

ancient  rocks;  these  hoary  archives  have  not  pre- 
served a  relic  of  the  race.  It  is  only  in  the  alluvial 
period  that  we  find  the  traces  of  man,  and  within  a 
date  compatible  alike  with  the  records  of  sacred  and 
profane  history. 

"  Such,"  says  Dr.  Mantell,  in  view  of  the  geolo- 
gy of  the  British  isles,  "  is  a  plain  annunciation  of 
the  results  of  our  investigations ;  but  I  will  embody 
these  inductions  in  a  more  impressive  form,  by  em- 
ploying the  metaphor  of  an  Arabian  writer,  and  imag- 
ining some  higher  intelligence  from  another  sphere 
to  describe  the  physical  mutations  of  which  he  may 
be  supposed  to  have  taken  cognizance,  from  the  pe- 
riod when  the  forests  of  Portland  were  flourishing,  to 
the  present  time.  Countless  ages  ere  man  was  cre- 
ated, he  might  say,  —  I  visited  these  regions  of  the 
earth,  I  beheld  a  beautiful  country  of  vast  extent,  di- 
versified by  hill  and  dale,  with  its  rivulets,  streams,  and 
mighty  rivers,  flowing  through  fertile  plains.  Groves 
of  palms  and  ferns,  and  forests  of  coniferous  trees, 
clothed  its  surface ;  and  I  saw  monsters  of  the  reptile 
tribe,  so  huge  that  nothing  among  the  existing  races 
can  compare  with  them,  basking  on  the  banks  and 
roaming  through  its  forests;  while  in  its  fens  and 
marshes  were  sporting  thousands  of  crocodiles  and 
turtles.  Winged  reptiles  of  strange  forms  shared  with 
birds  the  dominion  of  the  air,  and  the  waters  teemed 
with  fishes,  shells,  and  Crustacea. 

"  And  after  the  lapse  of  many  ages,  I  again  visit- 
ed the  earth  ;  and  the  country,  with  its  uinumerable 
dragon -forms,  and  its  tropical  forests,  all  had  disap- 
peared, and  an  ocean  had  usurped  their  place,  and 


278  GENERAL   VIEW. 

its  waters  teemed  with  nautili,  ammonites,  and  other 
cephalopoda,  of  races  now  extinct,  and  innumerable 
fishes  and  marine  reptiles.  And  thousands  of  centu- 
ries rolled  by,  and  I  returned,  and  lo !  the  ocean  was 
gone,  and  dry  land  had  again  appeared,  and  it  was 
covered  with  groves  and  forests;  but  these  were 
wholly  different  in  character  from  those  of  the  van- 
ished country  of  the  iguanodon.  And  I  beheld,  quietly 
browsing,  herds  of  deer  of  enormous  size,  and  groups 
of  elephants,  mastodons,  and  other  herbivorous  ani- 
mals, of  colossal  magnitude.  And  I  saw  in  its  rivers 
and  marshes  the  hippopotamus,  tapir,  and  rhinoceros ; 
and  I  heard  the  roar  of  the  lion  and  the  tiger,  and  the 
yell  of  the  hyena  and  the  bear. 

"  And  another  epoch  passed  away,  and  I  came  again 
to  the  scene  of  my  former  contemplations  ;  and  all  the 
mighty  forms  which  I  had  left  had  disappeared,  the 
face  of  the  country  no  longer  presented  the  same 
aspect ;  it  was  broken  into  islands,  and  the  bottom  of 
the  sea  had  become  dry  land,  and  what  before  was 
dry  land  had  sunk  beneath  the  waves.  Herds  of 
deer  were  still  to  be  seen  on  the  plains,  with  swine 
and  horses  and  oxen,  and  wolves  in  the  woods  and 
forests ;  and  I  beheld  human  beings,  clad  in  the  skins 
of  animals,  and  armed  with  clubs  and  spears ;  and 
they  had  formed  themselves  habitations  in  caves,  con- 
structed huts  for  shelter,  inclosed  pastures  for  cattle, 
and  were  endeavouring  to  cultivate  the  soil. 

"  And  a  thousand  years  elapsed,  and  I  revisited  the 
country,  and  a  village  had  been  built  upon  the  sea- 
shore, and  its  inhabitants  supported  themselves  by 
fishing ;  and  they  had  erected  a  temple  on  the  neigh- 


INFERENCES.  279 

bouring  hill,  and  dedicated  it  to  their  patron  saint.  And 
the  adjacent  country  was  studded  with  towns  and  vil- 
lages, and  the  downs  were  covered  with  flocks,  and  the 
valleys  with  herds,  and  the  corn-fields  and  pastures 
were  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation,  denoting  an  in- 
dustrious and  peaceful  community. 

"  And  lastly,  after  an  interval  of  many  centuries,  I 
arrived  once  more,  and  the  village  was  swept  away, 
and  its  site  covered  by  the  waves ;  but  in  the  valley, 
and  on  the  hills  above  the  cliffs,  a  beautiful  city  ap- 
peared, with  its  palaces,  its  temples,  and  its  thousand 
edifices,  and  its  streets  teeming  with  a  busy  population 
in  the  highest'  state  of  civilization,  —  the  resort  of  the 
nobles  of  the  land,  the  residence  of  the  monarch  of  a 
mighty  empire.  And  I  perceived  many  of  its  intelli- 
gent inhabitants  gathering  together  the  vestiges  of  the 
beings  which  had  lived  and  died,  and  whose  very  forms 
were  now  obliterated  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  and 
endeavouring,  by  these  natural  memorials,  to  trace  the 
succession  of  those  events  of  which  I  had  been  the 
witness,  and  which  had  preceded  the  history  of  their 
race." 


INFERENCES. 


MARKS  OF  DESIGN  IN  THE  GEOLOGICAL  CHANGES  OF 
THE  EARTH'S  SURFACE.  —  There  are  some  plain  and 
obvious  inferences  to  be  drawn  from  the  views  which  we 
have  presented,  and  which  it  may  be  well  to  notice.  In 


280  GENERAL   VIEW. 

the  first  place,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  there  are  proofs 
of  design,  of  the  use  of  means  adapted  to  an  end,  in 
the  whole  course  of  events  presented  by  the  geological 
history  of  the  earth.  We  have  already  adverted  to  the 
process  by  which  a  soil  was  first  formed  for  the  sup- 
port of  vegetable  life,  and  the  means  thus  provided 
for  the  sustenance  of  animal  life.  In  the  outset,  only 
the  mineral  kingdom  existed ;  as  yet  there  was  no 
such  thing  as  organized  matter ;  there  was  nothing  fit 
for  the  support  of  animal  life.  The  vegetable  king- 
dom was  devised  and  brought  into  being,  and  thus  the 
means  were  provided  for  the  support  of  the  animal 
kingdom.  Now  we  may  fairly  presume  that  this  earth 
was  destined  to  become  the  habitation  of  living,  sen- 
tient beings ;  and  we  see  that  a  series  of  events,  all 
tending  to  fit  it  for  such  a  purpose,  actually  took 
place.  We  here  see  an  intelligent  and  desirable 
end  in  view,  and  means,  extending  through  countless 
ages,  and  embracing  an  infinite  variety  of  circumstan- 
ces, all  finally  terminating  in  fulfilling  that  end. 

We  may  also  suppose  that  the  earth  was  intended 
to  be  the  abode  of  man;  and  geology  teaches  us  that 
this  end  has  been  accomplished  by  a  process  bearing 
the  evident  marks  of  intelligent  design.  In  the  sever- 
al stages  of  the  world's  progress,  we  have  seen  that 
the  animals  and  vegetables  were  mutually  adapted  to 
each  other,  and  to  the  state  of  things  around  them. 
When  the  air  was  heated  and  filled  with  moisture, 
the  vegetation  conformed  to  these  circumstances  ;  and 
the  animals,  consisting  of  huge  reptiles,  were  fitted 
to  breathe  a  fetid  atmosphere,  and  to  feed  on  coarse, 
rank  herbage.  But  in  tracing  the  geological  changes, 


INFERENCES.  281 

we  observe  a  constant  improvement,  from  one  step  to 
another.  If  we  compare  any  one  age  with  that 
which  preceded  it,  we  see  that  the  earth  always  be- 
comes more  and  more  suited  to  the  higher  forms  of 
animal  life.  At  first,  only  zoophytes,  animals  which 
seem  to  be  on  the  verge  of  the  vegetable  world,  are 
created  ;  then  shell-fishes  appear;  then  insects,  and, 
in  succession,  gigantic  tortoises,  frogs,  reptiles,  and 
lizards  of  many  forms.  These  are  swept  away,  and, 
after  a  succession  of  generations,  man  and  his  asso- 
ciate animal  races  occupy  the  earth.  Here  is  a 
series  of  steps  obviously  leading  to  a  plain  result;  — 
the  mighty  engines  of  fire  and  water,  the  energies  of 
chemical  combination  and  decomposition,  have  been 
in  operation  for  countless  ages  ;  at  length  the  earth  is 
fitted  to  be  the  abode  of  man,  and  then,  and  not  till 
then,  man  appears  as  the  master  of  the  organic  king- 
doms. Here  again,  we  see  the  adaptation  of  means 
to  ends,  and  the  successful  accomplishment  of  a  desira- 
ble end  by  the  intelligent  use  of  instruments. 

We  might  advert  to  the  fact,  that  animal  races  are 
created,  with  the  vegetable  kingdom  suited  to  sustain 
them,  as  a  proof  of  design ;  but  we  can  particularly 
notice  one  instance  only,  unfolded  by  geology,  in 
which  an  adaptation  to  the  uses  of  man  is  obvious  and 
striking;  —  we  allude  to  the  production  of  coal,  in 
connection  with  useful  minerals.  The  distribution  of 
beds  of  coal  over  the  earth,  and  the  placing  them  in 
basins  so  as  to  be  easily  wrought,  must  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  beneficent  dispensations  of  Provi- 
dence. The  utility  of  this  mineral,  as  well  for  domes- 
tic as  public  purposes,  is  beyond  calculation. 


GENERAL    VIEW. 

It  has  been  calculated  that  in  England  about  fifteen 
thousand  steam-engines  are  daily  at  work.  One  of 
those  in  Cornwall  is  said  to  have  the  power  of  a  thou- 
sand horses  ;  the  power  of  each  horse,  according  to 
Mr.  Wyatt,  being  equal  to  that  of  five  and  a  half  men. 
Supposing,  then,  the  average  power  of  each  steam- 
engine  to  be  that  of  twenty-five  horses,  we  have  a  total 
of  steam  power  equal  to  that  of  more  than  two  millions 
of  men.  When  we  consider  that  a  large  proportion  of 
this  power  is  applied  to  move  machinery,  and  that 
the  work  now  done  by  machinery  in  England  has 
been  supposed  to  be  equivalent  to  that  of  three  or 
four  millions  of  men  by  direct  labor,  we  are  almost 
astounded  at  the  influence  of  coal  and  iron  and 
steam  upon  the  fate  and  fortunes  of  the  human  race. 
"  It  is  on  the  river,"  says  Mr.  Webster,  "  and  the  boat- 
man may  repose  upon  his  oars  ;  it  is  on  highways, 
and  begins  to  exert  itself  along  the  courses  of  land 
conveyances ;  it  is  at  the  bottom  of  mines,  a  thousand 
feet  below  the  earth's  surface*;  it  is  in  the  mill,  and  in 
the  workshop  of  the  trader.  It  rows,  it  pumps,  it 
excavates,  it  carries,  it  draws,  it  lifts,  it  hammers,  it 
spins,  it  weaves,  it  prints." 

It  hardly  increases  our  sense  of  the  importance  or 
power  of  coal  to  state  that  there  is  virtue  in  a  bush- 
el of  coals,  properly  consumed,  to  raise  seventy  mil- 
lion pounds'  weight  a  foot  high.  "  The  ascent  of 
Mont  Blanc  from  Chamouni,"  says  Dr.  Buckland,  "is 
considered,  and  with  justice,  as  the  most  toilsome  feat 
that  a  strong  man  can  execute  in  two  days ;  yet  the 
combustion  of  two  pounds  of  coal  would  place  him  on 
the  summit."  If  we  consider  these  facts,  and  observe 


INFERENCES.  283 

the  mighty  purposes  which  this  mineral  is  actually 
fulfilling,  in  promoting  the  happiness  of  the  human 
race,  it  is  impossible  to  believe  that  it  was  created, 
and  man  himself  brought  into  existence,  but  with  a 
design  that  embraced  the  adaptation  of  the  one  to  the 
uses  of  the  other. 

If  this  inference  needed  confirmation,  it  might  be 
found  in  the  fact,  that  in  Pennsylvania,  England,  Scot- 
land, and  other  countries,  there  are  rich  beds  of  iron 
ore  found  in  near  connection  with  the  deposits  of 
coal.  If  we  consider  the  utility  of  this  metal  to  man, 
we  cannot  doubt  that  it  was  designed  for  his  use  ;  and 
when  we  see  it  thus  placed  side  by  side  with  a  material 
requisite  for  its  reduction  to  the  purposes  of  life,  it 
becomes  a  matter  of  reasonable  assurance,  that  these 
things  were  thus  disposed  by  the  care  of  a  wise  and 
benignant  Providence  for  the  benefit  of  man. 

Nor  will  a  full  view  of  the  disturbing  forces  on  the 
face  of  the  earth  furnish  less  evident  proofs  of  intel- 
ligence in  the  great  Governor  of  the  earth,  than  the 
topics  we  have  just  considered.  Elevations  and  sub- 
sidences, inclinations  and  contortions,  fractures  and 
dislocations,  are  phenomena  which  at  first  sight  pre- 
sent only  the  appearance  of  confusion  and  disorder ; 
yet,  when  fairly  understood,  they  demonstrate  the  ex- 
istence of  order,  method,  and  design,  even  in  the  ope- 
ration of  those  mighty  physical  forces  which  have 
affected  the  terraqueous  globe.  But  our  space  does  not 
enable  us  to  go  into  a  consideration  of  this  subject. 

UNITY  OF  DESIGN.  —  Geology  teaches  us  that  amid 
all  the  diversities  of  creation,  reaching  through  an  in- 
calculable series  of  ages,  and  embracing  innumerable 


284  GENERAL   VIEW. 

species  of  animals,  the  same  general  plan  has  been 
carefully  observed.  We  have  already  stated,  that,  in 
every  geological  period,  we  observe  the  same  classes 
of  animals  and  vegetables,  even  when  the  genera 
were  totally  distinct  from  the  present.  As  Paley  -has 
said  in  reference  to  other  worlds,  so  we  may  say 
in  respect  to  the  past  ages  of  this,  as  displayed  by 
geology,  "  We  never  get  amongst  such  originally  or 
totally  different  modes  of  existence,  as  to  indicate  that 
we  are  come  into  the  presence  of  a  different  Creator, 
or  under  the  direction  of  a  different  Will."  "  Wher- 
ever we  go,  into  the  records  of  whatever  period  we 
look,  it  is,"  says  Buckland,  "  the  same  handwriting  we 
read,  the  same  system  and  contrivance  we  trace,  the 
same  unity  of  object,  and  relation  to  final  causes, 
which  we  see  maintained  throughout,  and  constantly 
proclaiming  the  unity  of  the  great  Divine  Original." 

PROOFS  OF  CREATION. — It  has  been  conceived  by 
some  persons  that  the  earth  has  existed  from  eternity ; 
and  in  this  mystery  the  atheist  has  generally  intrenched 
himself.  Geology  affords  the  most  satisfactory  refuta- 
tion of  this  fatal  error.  We  see  that  the  earth,  from 
the  commencement,  has  undergone  an  entire  change, 
embracing  a  great  variety  of  revolutions  ;  —  and  that  it 
has  been,  from  time  to  time,  the  witness  to  a  multitude 
of  distinct  acts  of  creation,  by  which  all  the  races  of  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  life  have  been  successively  brought 
into  existence,  is  clearly  demonstrated  by  geologi- 
cal researches.  "  We  conceive  it  undeniable,"  says 
an  able  writer,  "  that  we  see,  in  the  transition  from  an 
earth  peopled  by  one  set  of  animals  to  the  same  earth 
swarming  with  entirely  new  forms  of  organic  life,  a 


INFERENCES.  285 

distinct  manifestation  of  creative  power,  transcending 
the  operation  of  known  laws  of  nature ;  and  it  ap- 
pears to  us  that  geology  has  thus  lighted  a  new  lamp 
along  the  path  of  natural  theology." 

"If  I  understand  geology  aright,"  says  Professor 
Hitchcock,  "  so  far  from  teaching  the  eternity  of  the 
world,  it  proves  more  directly  than  any  other  science 
can,  that  its  revolutions  and  races  of  inhabitants  had  a 
commencement,  and  that  it  contains  within  itself  the 
chemical  energies,  which  need  only  to  be  set  at  liberty, 
by  the  will  of  their  Creator,  to  accomplish  its  destruction. 
Because  this  science  teaches  that  the  revolutions  of  na- 
ture have  occupied  immense  periods  of  time,  it  does 
not,  therefore,  teach  that  they  form  an  eternal  series  ; 
it  only  enlarges  our  conceptions  of  the  Deity." 

GEOLOGY  IN  REFERENCE  TO  THE  SCRIPTURE  HISTO- 
RY OF  THE  CREATION. — We  have  already  stated  that 
geology  calls  upon  us  to  reject  the  ancient  chronology 
of  the  earth,  founded,  as  has  been  supposed,  upon  the 
Mosaic  record ;  but  does  it  follow  that  the  Bible  itself 
falls  to  the  ground  ?  This  is  a  question  of  deep  in- 
terest, and  deserves  to  be  carefully  considered. 

When  the  discoveries  of  geology  first  began  to  be 
proclaimed,  they  were  seized  upon  by  infidels,  and 
those  who  wished  to  discard  the  authority  of  a  revela- 
tion from  God,  as  instruments  by  which  to  impugn  the 
veracity  of  the  Scriptures.  The  account  of  the  creation 
given  by  Moses,  said  they,  cannot  be  true  ;  for  here  are 
contradictory  records  of  the  earth's  formation  written 
in  the  very  rocks  of  which  our  globe  is  composed.  So 
bold  a  charge,  and  the  seeming  plausibility  with  which 
the  arguments  advanced  were  urged,  made  many  a 


286  GENERAL    VIEW. 

pious  person  look  with  prejudice  on  a  science,  which,  it 
was  claimed,  struck  so  deadly  a  blow  against  the  faith 
and  dearest  hopes  of  man.  But  in  this  case,  as  in  ev- 
ery similar  one,  in  the  further  prosecution  of  investiga- 
tion, the  defenders  of  revelation  have  been  enabled 
to  wrest  from  the  hands  of  foes  the  weapons  aimed  at 
their  shield,  and  to  turn  these  against  them.  Cuvier,  in 
his  work  on  the  revolutions  upon  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  clearly  demonstrated  the  truth  of  the  Bible,  and 
boldly  proclaimed  it  before  the  French  savans  who 
had  ventured  to  attack  it.  Others  have  followed  in  his 
track,  — as  Buckland,  J.  P.  Smith,  Hitchcock,  Silli- 
man,  &c.,  —  sustaining  the  veracity  of  the  Scripture 
account,  and  suggesting  various  methods  by  which  the 
apparent  discrepancies  of  the  record  with  the  facts  dis- 
covered may  be  reconciled.  We  shall  here  give  a 
brief  summary  of  their  views. 

It  may  be  laid  down,  as  a  general  principle  on  which 
all  reasoning  on  this  subject  must  rest,  that  revelation 
does  not  profess  to  teach  us  the  principles  of  science. 
The  usual  language  of  popular  speech  is  employed ; 
the  Bible  speaks,  as  we  all  do,  of  the  sun's  rising  and 
setting,  and  of  various  things,  which,  viewed  with  strict 
philosophical  accuracy,  are  altogether  at  variance  with 
fact.  No  one,  however,  is  deceived  by  this  use  of  lan- 
guage. 

There  is,  too,  a  general  agreement  between  the 
Bible  and  geology,  as  to  the  agents  employed  to  pro- 
duce changes  on  our  globe,  —  fire  and  water.  They 
agree,  also,  in  representing  a  primitive  chaos,  when  the 
land  was  submerged  and  upheaved  by  the  power  of 
God ;  as  well  as  in  describing  the  work  of  creation  to 


INFERENCES.  287 

have  been  progressive  ;  and  that  man  was  the  last  of 
the  created  inhabitants  of  the  globe.  They  agree  fur- 
ther in  the  fact,  that  the  commencement  of  the  exist- 
ing races  on  the  globe  was  at  a  comparatively  recent 
period  ;  not  exceeding,  it  is  probable,  about  six  thou- 
sand years. 

It  deserves  to  be  borne  in  mind  here,  that  the  object 
of  the  Bible  is,  to  treat  of  subjects  relating  to  the  pres- 
ent race  of  man,  and  the  creatures  by  which  he  is 
surrounded.  In  perfect  consistency  with  such  a  design, 
there  might  have  been  many  races  previously ;  and  if 
there  are  no  other  difficulties  than  on  this  score,  these 
surely  present  no  insurmountable  obstacles. 

But  the  supposed  discrepancies  deserve  some  con- 
sideration. They  relate  especially  to  the  age  of  the 
world,  and  the  period  at  which  death  was  first  intro- 
duced upon  the  globe.  Immensely  long  periods,  it  is 
claimed,  must  have  intervened  ;  several  successive 
systems  must  have  preceded  the  present  one  ;  whereas 
the  Mosaic  account  of  the  creation  represents  the  mat- 
ter of  the  globe  to  have  been  produced  out  of  nothing 
in  the  course  of  only  six  natural  days,  and  that  all 
animals  and  plants  were  then  brought  into  existence. 
If,  however,  methods  can  be  suggested  by  which  these 
difficulties  can  be  obviated,  they  must  be  allowed  to 
have  no  force,  or  to  deserve  no  further  regard. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  possible  —  though  not,  indeed, 
probable  —  that  the  rocks  which  contain  fossils  were 
not  the  result  of  slow  deposition,  but,  with  all  their 
organic  remains,  were  created  just  as  we  find  them. 
It  is  also  claimed  —  which,  likewise,  is  improbable, 
though  possible  —  that  most  of  the  changes  discov- 


280  GENERAL    VIEW. 

ered  may  be  referred  to  the  deluge  of  Noah.  The 
shortness  of  the  period  that  has  elapsed  since  that 
event ;  the  evidences  of  tumultuous  action  of  the  waves ; 
as  well  as  the  existence  of  organic  remains  differing 
from  those  of  present  animals  and  plants,  are  consid- 
ered as  strongly  militating  against  such  an  explanation. 
Similar  remarks  may  apply  to  the  hypothesis  which 
refers  the  changes  to  the  period  between  the  creation 
and  the  deluge. 

Others  have  attempted  to  show  that  the  six  days 
mentioned  in  the  Mosaic  account  were  not  literal  days, 
but  periods  of  indefinite  length,  and  may  have  been 
thousands  of  years.  The  turning  of  the  earth  on  its 
axis  is  conceived  by  some  to  have  been  at  first  "  incon- 
ceivably slow,"  and  that  the  present  rate  was  not  ob- 
tained, till,  at  least,  the  fourth  day.  While  it  is  admit- 
ted that  the  word  day  is  sometimes  used  figuratively  in 
the  Scripture  for  an  indefinite  period  of  time,  we  must, 
however,  say,  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  is  so  used  in 
the  first  chapter  of  Genesis.  The  description,  there,  is 
a  simple,  plain  history,  designed  and  adapted  to  uncul- 
tivated minds,  and  to  give  a  view  of  events  as  they  took 
place.  The  reference  in  the  fourth  commandment  to 
the  work  of  the  creation  in  six  days  is  one  which  de- 
serves serious  consideration,  and  is  at  variance  with  the 
hypothesis  now  under  remark.  The  facts  in  the  case 
are  strongly  opposed  to  such  a  view.  If  the  Mosaic 
account  include  the  fossil  species,  it  does  not  the  exist- 
ing ones  ;  and  if  it  embrace  the  latter,  it  cannot  the 
former. 

Some  very  able  writers  have  maintained,  that  the 
Mosaic  account  is  rather  intended  as  a  pictorial  repre- 


INFERENCES.  289 

sentation  of  successive  periods  of  the  different  parts  of 
the  creation,  founded  in  the  truth,  but  still  not  to  be 
regarded  as  literally  or  exactly  true.  If  admissible  on 
other  principles,  this  theory  would  afford  a  solution  for 
the  apparent  discrepancy  between  geology  and  revela- 
tion, as  it  allows  a  sufficient  period  of  time  in  the  dif- 
ferent epochs  supposed. 

The  common  method  of  explanation  has  been,  how- 
ever, to  suppose,  that  in  the  first  verse  of  Genesis 
Moses  states  the  creation  as  having  taken  place  in  the 
beginning,  without  fixing  the  date,  and  then  passing  in 
silence  over  the  intervening  period,  during  which  ex- 
tinct animals  might  have'  lived  and  died,  he  describes 
the  present  creation,  or  rather  reorganization,  as  it 
took  place  literally  in  six  days.  This  would  reconcile 
the  apparent  discrepancies,  without  doing  violence  to 
the  language  of  the  Scripture  ;  and  any  seeming  diffi- 
culty respecting  the  creation  of  the  heavenly  bodies  is 
easily  explained,  on  the  supposition  that  Moses  means 
nothing  more  than  to  describe  the  particular  use  of 
those  bodies  to  our  own  globe,  as  designed  for  the  resi- 
dence of  man,  under  the  present  system.  Dr.  John 
Pye  Smith,  in  a  recent  able  work  "  On  the  Relations 
between  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  some  Parts  of  Geo- 
logical Science,"  has  proposed  a  modified  view  of  the 
last  mentioned  "theory,  which  seems  to  have  been  well 
received  by  able  geologists,  as  well  as  the  Christian 
public. 

His  positions,  as  given  by  Professor  Hitchcock,  are 
as  follows.  1.  The  first  verse  of  Genesis  describes 
the  creation  of  the  matter  of  the  whole  universe,  prob- 
ably in  the  state  of  mere  elements,  at  some  indefinite 
19 


290  GENERAL   VIEW. 

epoch  in  past  eternity.  2.  The  term  earth,  as  used  in 
the  subsequent  verses  of  Genesis,  describing  the  work 
of  six  days,  was  "  designed  to  express  the  part  of  our 
world  which  God  was  adapting  for  the  dwelling  of 
man  and  the  animals  connected  with  him."  3.  The 
narrative  of  the  six  days'  work  is  "  a  description,  in  ex- 
pressions adapted  to  the  ideas  and  capacities  of  man- 
kind in  the  earliest  ages,  of  a  series  of  operations,  by 
which  the  Being  of  omnipotent  wisdom  and  goodness 
adjusted  and  finished,  not  the  earth  generally,  but,  as 
the  particular  subject  under  consideration  here,  ^.-por- 
tion of  its  surface  for  most  glorious  purposes.  This 
portion  of  the  earth  I  conceive  to  have  been  a  large 
part  of  Asia,  lying  between  the  Caucasian  ridge,  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  Tartary,  on  the  north,  the  Persian 
and  Indian  Seas  on  the  south,  and  the  high  mountain 
ridges,  which  run  at  considerable  distances,  on  the  east- 
ern and  western  flank.  This  region  was  first,  by  atmo- 
spheric and  geological  causes  of  previous  operation 
under  the  will  of  the  Almighty,  brought  into  a  condition 
of  superficial  ruin,  or  some  kind  of  general  disorder." 
Probably  by  volcanic  agency  it  was  submerged  and 
covered  with  fogs  and  clouds;  but  was  subsequently 
elevated,  and  the  atmosphere,  by  the  fourth  day,  ren- 
dered pellucid.  4.  The  sun,  moon,  and  stars  were 
not  created  on  the  fourth  day ;  but  then  "  made,  cor\- 
stituted,  or  appointed,  to  be  luminaries."  5.  The 
Noachian  deluge  was  limited  to  that  part  of  the  world 
occupied  by  the  human  race ;  and  therefore  we  ought 
not  to  expect  that  any  traces  of  it  on  the  globe  can 
now  be  distinguished  from  those  of  previous  and  canl- 
ogous  deluges. 


INFERENCES.  291 

These  positions  Dr.  Smith  sustains  with  much  power- 
ful reasoning  and  accurate  philology  ;  and  the  view  is 
conceived  to  correspond  to  many  particular  facts  relat- 
ing to  the  creation,  which  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 
as  well  as  to  others  developed  by  geological  research. 
It  should  likewise  be  remembered,  that,  in  the  further 
progress  of  discovery,  the  seeming  difficulties  may  be 
further  obviated,  as  others  have  already  been,  both  as 
regards  astronomy  and  other  sciences,  including  geol- 
ogy itself. 

The  second  difficulty  alleged  relates  to  the  sup- 
posed statement  in  the  Bible,  that  death  did  not  exist  in 
our  world  among  inferior  animals,  till  after  the  crea- 
tion of  man.  The  fact,  however,  is  not  so  stated  ;  for 
the  reasoning  of  the  Apostle,  from  which  it  is  profess- 
edly drawn,  relates  to  man,  a  moral  being,  by  whom 
sin  was  introduced  into  the  world.  The  wonders  of 
the  microscope  have  shown  that  the  air,  the  water, 
every  thing,  teems  with  life ;  consequently,  life  must 
have  been  destroyed  soon  after  the  first  existence  of 
the  various  creatures  ;  and  without  a  constant  miracu- 
lous interference  with  the  laws  of  nature  and  the  es- 
tablished course  of  Providence,  death  was  unavoid- 
able. 


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